A Simple Phonetic Respelling for the English Language
Project description
# Lytspel, a Simple Phonetic Respelling for the English Language
The idea: Spelling should be fun, not a burden. The traditional English
spelling system is afflicted with exceptions and conflicting rules, making
writing and reading texts unnecessary hard.
Lytspel is a proposal for reforming the English spelling in order to make
it strictly follow the alphabetic principle. The alphabetic principle means
that there is a predictable relationship between written letters and spoken
sounds. When you see a written word, you know how to pronounce it (even if
you don't know the word itself), and vice versa.
Traditional English spelling (tradspell) deviates from the alphabetic
principle in many ways. The mapping between written and spoken words is
very complex and riddled with irregularities and exceptions. Lytspel (for
«lytwait speling» or ‹lightweight spelling›) is a proposal to change this
while stilling keeping as much visual similarity to tradspell as reasonably
possible.
Lytspel not only creates an unambiguous mapping between the sounds used in
English and their written representations, it also indicates which syllable
in each word is the stressed one.
In addition to the reform proposal, there will be a full dictionary and a
converter that translates traditional spelling into Lytspel. Both are
currently work in progress.
Here are two example paragraphs written in Lytspel. The first is [The North
Wind and the
Sun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_North_Wind_and_the_Sun), one of
Aesop's fables that's frequently used as an example in phonetics, while the
second is made up of two nonsense sentences that contain most of the sounds
of English.
> Dhe North Wind and dhe Sun wur di'spiuting wich wos dhe strongger, wen a
> traveler caim a'long rapd in a worm cloak. Dhay a'greed dhat dhe won hu
> furst su'xeeded in maiking dhe traveler taik his cloak of shood bee
> con'siderd strongger dhan dhe udher. Dhen dhe North Wind blu as hard as
> hi cood, but dhe mor hi blu dhe mor cloassli did dhe traveler foald his
> cloak e'round him; and at last dhe North Wind gaiv up dhe a'tempt. Dhen
> dhe Sun shynd out wormli, and i'meediatli dhe traveler took of his cloak.
> And so dhe North Wind wos o'blyjd tu con'fess dhat dhe Sun wos dhe
> strongger ov dhe tuu.
>
> Dhat quik baizh fox jumpd in dhe air oaver eech thin dog under a caam
> autum muun. Look out, y shout, for hi's foild iu yet a'gen, cri'aiting
> cayoss.
Here are the same paragraphs written in tradspell. Lytspel might look a
bit unusual at first, but should be easy to get used too. Just try reading
it out aloud and you'll soon get the hang of it.
> The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a
> traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who
> first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be
> considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as
> he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his
> cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then
> the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his
> cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the
> stronger of the two.
>
> That quick beige fox jumped in the air over each thin dog under a calm
> autumn moon. Look out, I shout, for he's foiled you yet again, creating
> chaos.
## Conventions and Abbreviations
The following formatting conventions are used in this document:
* «double guillemets» for Lytspel (and spellings that haven't changed)
* ‹single guillemets› for traditional spellings
* /slashes/ for phonetics, written in the
[SAMPA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_Assessment_Methods_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart_for_English)
alphabet (with some slight modifications to make it more suitable for
English)
Abbreviations used:
* RP: [Received
Pronunciation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Pronunciation),
the standard form of English spoken in the United Kingdom, especially
in England and Wales
* GA: [General American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_American),
English as typically spoken in the United States
## The Rules of Lytspel
The syllable that carries the primary stress in a word is preceded by an
apostrophe, e.g. «dis'cuss, in'telijent, co'miti, cri'ait» ‹discuss,
intelligent, committee, create›. No stress marker is used if the word only
has a single syllable or if the first syllable carries the primary stress,
e.g. «big, week, camel, garden».
The short vowels are written as follows:
* «a» /a/ as in «cat»
* «e» /E/ as in «pen»
* «i» /I/ as in «big»
* «o» /Q/ as in «dog»
* «oo» /U/ as in «book»
* «u» /V/ as in «club»
The long vowels and diphthongs are written as follows:
* «aa» /A/ as in «paam, faadher» ‹palm, father›
* «ai» /eI/ as in «aim, saint, faiss» ‹...face›
* «au» /O:/ as in «auther, paus» ‹author, pause›
* «ee» /i:/ as in «tree, teem» ‹...team›
* «oa» /oU/ as in «boat, hoam» ‹...home›
* «oi» /OI/ as in «oil, point, a'void» ‹...avoid›
* «ou» /aU/ as in «mouth, doun» ‹...down›
* «uu» /u:/ as in «muun, ex'cluud, gruup» ‹moon, exclude, group›
* «iu» (/yU/ or /ju:/) as in «valiu, kiut, com'piuter, modiulait» ‹value,
cute, computer, modulate›
* The spelling «ue» is used in words that are typically spoken with /yU/
or /ju:/ in RP, with /u:/ in GA, e.g. «due, nuetrel, tuen» ‹...neutral,
tune›
* «y» /aI/ as in «pryss, styl, dry» ‹price, style...›
The consonants are written as follows:
* «b» /b/ as in «bed»
* «ch» /tS/ as in «much»
* «d» /d/ as in «desk»
* «dh» /D/ as in «dhem» ‹them›
* «f» /f/ as in «fat»
* «g» /g/ as in «big, garden, gess» ‹...guess›
* «h» /h/ as in «hot»
* «j» /dZ/ as in «joy, dijit» ‹...digit›
* «l» /l/ as in «leg»
* «m» /m/ as in «mad»
* «n» /n/ as in «now»
* «ng» /N/ as in «long»
* «p» /p/ as in «pop»
* «r» /r/ as in «run»
* «sh» /S/ as in «ship»
* «t» /t/ as in «test»
* «th» /T/ as in «thin»
* «v» /v/ as in «ever»
* «w» /w/ as in «west, wen» ‹...when›. Note: In some English accepts, the
«w» in «wen» ‹when› is spoken differently than the «w» in «west», but
since most accents (including RP and GA) no longer make this
difference, it is not preserved in Lytspel (cf. [wine-whine
merger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8wh%E2%9F%A9#Wine.E2.80.93whine_merger)).
* «y» /j/ as in «yet»
* «zh» /Z/ as in «mi'raazh» ‹mirage›
* The sound /k/ is written as «c» or «k», depending on context:
* «k» is used before «e, i, y», e.g. «keep, king, kynd,
calkyu'laition» ‹...kind, calculation›
* «k» is also used before «h» to prevent confusion with the digraph
«ch» /tS/, e.g. «lunkhed» ‹lunkhead›
* «c» is used before any other letter, e.g. «cat, cost, crisp»
* «c» is also used at the end of words ending in unstressed /ak/ or
/Ik/, e.g. «mainiac, majic, public» ‹maniac, magic...›
* «k» is used at the end of other words ending in /k/, e.g. «book,
drink, quik, speek, naimsaik» ‹...quick, speak, namesake›
* The sound /s/ is written as «c», «s», or «ss», depending on context:
* «c» is used between any vowel and a vowel starting with «e, i, y»,
e.g. «deecent, ex'plicit, nececeri, de'cyd» ‹decent, explicit,
necessary, decide›
* «ss» is used between any vowel and a vowel starting with «a, o, u»,
e.g. «as'sault, epissoad, as'sumption» ‹assault, episode,
assumption›. Note: If a stressed syllable starts with «ss», the
stress marker is inserted before the second «s».
* «ss» is also used at the end of words except after any of the
consonants /f, k, p, t, T/, e.g. «less, miss, evidenss»
‹...evidence›
* «s» is used anywhere else, e.g. «sun, desk, chips, up'sets»
‹...upsets›
* «s» is also used in the prefixes «dis, mis» regardless of which
letter follows, e.g. «disa'gree, disen'chantment, misin'turpret,
misunder'stand» ‹disagree, disenchantment, misinterpret,
misunderstand›
* The sound /z/ is written as «s» or «z», depending on context:
* «s» is used between two vowels, e.g. «visit, eesi, dusen, di'syr,
bi'sar, ri'sult» ‹...easy, dozen, desire, bizarre, result›
* «s» is also used at the end of words except after any of the
consonants /f, k, p, t, T/, e.g. «his, wishes, meens, paus, quis»
‹...means, pause, quiz›
* «z» is used anywhere else, e.g. «zeero, ig'zact, ob'zurv» ‹zero,
exact, observe›
The schwa /@/:
* The schwa is an unstressed and neutral vowel that occurs frequently in
English words. Lytspel generally writes it as «e» or «u».
* «u» is used whenever the traditional spelling contains this vowel, e.g.
«album, nurvuss, sus'pend» ‹...nervous, suspend›.
* «e» is used otherwise, e.g. «camel, problem, hiden, sentrel»
‹...hidden, central›.
* This means that Lytspel doesn't distinguish between unstressed /V/ as
in «funda'mentl» ‹fundamental› or /E/ as in «index» and the schwa /@/.
However, since the unstressed form of these vowels sounds quite similar
to the schwa and there is often no agreement between speakers whether
to use one or the other, this shouldn't hurt.
* A schwa immediately preceding the primarily stressed syllable can also
be represented by one of the other three vowel letters («a, i, o», but
not «y»), e.g. «a» in «a'bout» ‹about›, «i» in «imaji'naition»
‹imagination›, «o» in «com'piut» ‹compute›. The reason for this is that
the vowel preceding the stressed syllable is often spoken so quickly
that it's hard to decide whether a schwa or one of the short vowels is
pronounced and not all speakers will agree on which one to use. For
clarity, it's therefore better to stick with the original
representation of the vowel in such cases, even if most speakers might
reduce it to a schwa. Additionally, the reduced vowel often becomes
clearly audible in related words, e.g. while the second «i» in
«imaji'naition» ‹imagination› is often reduced to a schwa, in «i'majin»
‹imagine› it's clearly audible as /I/.
* Between some consonant pairs at the end of words, the schwa is omitted
in writing; since these pairs never occur *without* an intervening
vowel at the end of words, there is no risk of confusion:
* Final /s@l/ is written «ssl», e.g. «counssl, mussl» ‹council,
muscle›
* Final /z@l/ is written «sl», e.g. «pro'poasl, pusl» ‹proposal,
puzzle›
* The schwa is also omitted between any of /b, p, d, t, f, g, k/ and
final /l/, e.g. «flexibl, simpl, midl, hospitl, litl, bafl, singgl,
leegl, sta'tisticl, articl» ‹flexible, simple, middle, hospital,
little, baffle, single, legal, statistical, article›. An exception
is the suffix «ful», e.g. «helpful, meeningful» ‹...meaningful›
(abbreviating this suffix to "fl" would be needlessly confusing and
could lead to misreadings).
* Final /z@m/ is written «sm», e.g. «criticism, sarcasm»
* The schwa is also omitted between /D/ and final /m/, e.g.
«algeridhm, ridhm» ‹algorithm, rhythm›
Before «r», the vowels are spelled as follows:
* «air» /e@/ as in «pair, shair, vairi'aition» ‹...share, variation›
* «ar» /Ar/ as in «dark, argyument» ‹...argument›
* «arr» /ar/ as in «carri, em'barress» ‹...embarrass›
* «eer» /i@/ as in «cheer, yeer» ‹...year›. Note: GA speakers often
pronounce this in the same way as the «ir» /Ir/ in «mirer» ‹mirror›
([mirror–mere
merger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/r/#Mirror.E2.80.93mere_merger)).
* «er» /@`/ as in «number, modern» (r-colored schwa). Note: In RP and
other [non-rhotic
accents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English), this
usually sounds like a normal schwa; likewise, «r» after other vowels is
often inaudible or reduced to a schwa.
* «err» /Er/ as in «merry, errer» ‹...error›
* «ir» /Ir/ as in «mirer, iritait» ‹mirror, irritate›
* «oar» /or/ as in «poart, ig'noar, keeboard» ‹port, ignore, keyboard›
* «or» /O:r/ as in «north, order, iuniform» ‹...uniform›. Note: Most RP
speakers pronounce this in the same way as the «oar» /or/ in «board»,
but the two sounds are distinguished in GA.
* «orr» /Qr/ as in «sorri, to'morro» ‹sorry, tomorrow›. Note: Most GA
speakers pronounce this in the same way as the «or» /O:r/ in «north»,
but the two sounds are distinguished in RP.
* «oor» /Ur/ as in «poor, toor, in'shoorenss» ‹...tour, insurance›
* «iur» (/ju:r/ or /jUr/) as in «Iurep, piur, ob'skiur» ‹Europe, pure,
obscure›
* The spelling «uer» is used in words that are typically spoken with
/ju:r/ or /jUr/ in RP, with /Ur/ in GA, e.g. «duering, nuerel» ‹during,
neural›
* «our» /aUr/ as in «flour, our» ‹flour, our *or* hour›
* «ur» /3:/ as in «turn, purfect, furst, con'surn, obzur'vaition»
‹...perfect, first, concern, observation›. This sound only occurs
before «r» and can be considered a stronger (and often stressed)
variant of the schwa.
* «urr» /Vr/ as in «hurri, current» ‹hurry...›
* «yr» is spoken /aI@`/ at the end of words (e.g. «fyr, in'spyr» ‹fire,
inspire›), /aIr/ elsewhere (e.g. «vyruss, yreni, spyrel» ‹virus, irony,
spiral›)
Some vowels are spelled differently at the end of words or before other
vowels:
* /eI/ is spelled «ay» at the end of words and before other vowels
(instead of «ai»), e.g. «play, holiday, layer, cayoss» ‹...chaos›.
* /aI/ is spelled «ai» before other vowels (instead of «y»), e.g.
«dai'ameter, quaiet, vaielenss, aiern, haierarki, Ha'waii» ‹diameter,
quiet, violence, iron, hierarchy, Hawaii›. This prevents confusion with
the consonant /j/ (as in «yet») which is also spelled «y» but only
occurs before vowels. There is also no risk of confusion with /eI/ (as
in «aim, layer») which is always spelled «ay» in this position.
* The same spelling is used if /aI/ occurs after a vowel at the end of a
word, e.g. «raidiai» ‹radii›.
* /O:/ is spelled «aw» at the end of words and before other vowels
(instead of «au»), e.g. «law, drawing».
* Final /E/ is spelled «eh» (instead of «e»), e.g. «eh, Yaaweh
‹...Yahweh›».
* Unstressed /i:/ is spelled «i» at the end of words and before other
vowels (instead of «ee»), e.g. «fansi, ne'ceciti, vidio, cri'aition»
‹fancy, necessity, video, creation›. This means that Lytspel cannot
distinguish between unstressed /i:/ and unstressed /I/ (as in «big») in
these positions, but that shouldn't hurt, as /I/ is rarely used in
these positions and dictionaries often disagree on which of these
sounds to use anyway.
* This spelling is also used in the personal pronouns ending in /i:/ (as
these are often less stressed than other words in a sentence): «hi,
shi, wi, mi» ‹he, she, we, me›. And it's used at the end of prefixes
such as «anti, semi» (spoken with /i:/ by many speakers, with /aI/ by
others) as well as «di, pri, ri» ‹de, pre, re› (even if the prefix is
stressed), e.g. «anti'aircraft, anti'soashel; semi'fynel,
semiauto'matic; di'graid, di'bug; prima'choor, pri'requisit; ri'act,
ripro'duess» ‹antiaircraft, antisocial; semifinal, semiautomatic;
degrade, debug; premature, prerequisite; react, reproduce›.
* /oU/ is spelled «o» at the end of words and before other vowels
(instead of «oa»), e.g. «yelo, zeero, co'operait, po'etic, sho»
‹yellow, zero, cooperate, poetic, show›. This poses little risk of
confusion, as /Q/ (as in «dog») occurs rarely or never before other
vowels. (Final /Q/ could be written «oh», but in practice it never
seems to occur.)
* This spelling is also used at the end of prefixes such as «astro, baio,
endo, ethno, ferro, fyto, galveno, hetero, hypo, imyuno, jio, keemo,
macro, mycro, nio, nuemo, nuero, pailio, soacio, spectro, suudo,
thurmo, ysso» ‹astro, bio, endo, ethno, ferro, phyto, galvano, hetero,
hypo, immuno, geo, chemo, macro, micro, neo, pneumo, neuro, paleo,
socio, spectro, pseudo, thermo, iso›, e.g. «baio'kemistri,
ethno'sentric, hetero'secshual, imyunodi'fishenssi, jio'fisicl,
keemo'therrepi, mycrowaiv, nio'classic, nuero'surjeri, suudosaienss,
thurmody'namics» ‹biochemistry, ethnocentric, heterosexual,
immunodeficiency, geophysical, chemotherapy, microwave, neoclassic,
neurosurgery, pseudoscience, thermodynamics›.
* /OI/ is spelled «oy» at the end of words and before other vowels
(instead of «oi»), e.g. «boy, en'joy, em'ployi» ‹...enjoy, employee›.
* /aU/ is spelled «ow» at the end of words and before other vowels
(instead of «ou»), e.g. «now, power, a'low» ‹...allow›.
* /u:/ is spelled «u» at the end of words and before other vowels
(instead of «uu»), e.g. «clu, ishu, sichu'aition» ‹clue, issue,
situation›. This poses little risk of confusion, as /V/ (as in «bus»)
occurs rarely or never before other vowels.
* Final /V/ is spelled «uh» (instead of «u»), e.g. «huh».
* Final schwa /@/ is spelled «a» (instead of «e» or «u»), e.g. «extra,
daita» ‹...data›. (Should unstressed /a/ (as in «cat») occur at the end
of words, it could be written «ah», but in practice it never seems to
occur.)
* Schwa /@/ before other vowels is always spelled «e» (never «u») to
prevent confusion with /u:/ (spelled «u» in this position). Schwa in
this position is very rare.
Spellings involving several sounds:
* The vowel combination /i:@/ or /I@/ is written «ia», e.g.
«mis'teeriass, ma'teerial, meediam, obviass, vairiabl, airia,
i'meediat» ‹mysterious, material, medium, obvious, variable, area,
immediate›. In a few words, «ia» instead represents /i:a/, e.g.
«en'thuesiasm, zoadiac» ‹enthusiasm, zodiac› (this distinction is not
represented in writing).
* The R-colored vowel combination /i:@`/ is written «ier», e.g. «thieri»
‹theory›.
* The vowel combination /oU@/ is written «oe», e.g. «boe, coe'lition,
ys'socroess» ‹boa, coalition, isochroous›. In a few words, «oe» instead
represents /oUE/, e.g. «floem» ‹phloem› (this distinction is not
represented in writing).
* The vowel combination /u:@/ or /U@/ is written «ua», e.g. «acchual,
indi'vijual, influanss, soo'purfluass, crual» ‹actual, individual,
influence, superfluous, cruel›. In a few words, «ua» instead represents
/u:a/, e.g. «bivuac» ‹bivouac› (this distinction is not represented in
writing).
* Likewise, /ju:@/ and /jU@/ are written «iua», e.g. «am'bigiuass,
maniual» ‹ambiguous, manual›.
* The consonant combination /kw/ is written «qu», e.g. «quit, ri'quest»
‹...request›; the letter «q» only occurs in this combination.
* The sound combination /ks/ is written «x», e.g. «mix, next, ex'plicit,
axident» ‹...explicit, accident›.
* Since «ng» represents the single sound /N/ (as in «long»), the sound
combination /ng/ is written «n'g» if a stress marker is needed in this
position (e.g. «en'gaij, in'grain» ‹engage, ingrain›), «nng» otherwise
(e.g. «cairnngorm, martenngail» ‹cairngorm, martingale›).
* Before /k/, «n» is pronounced /N/ rather then /n/ (e.g. «bank,
tranquil, dis'tinct, bron'kytiss» ‹...distinct, bronchitis›), except if
«n» and /k/ belong to different parts of a compound (e.g. «mankynd,
reincoat» ‹mankind, raincoat›) or if a word starts with any of «con,
en, in, non, un» followed by a /k/ sound (e.g. «con'cluusion,
en'counter, in'compitent, increess, noncon'foarmist, un'cleer»
‹conclusion, encounter, incompetent, increase, nonconformist,
unclear›).
* If /Nk/ is spoken where the preceding rule suggests /nk/, the /N/ is
written «ng», e.g. «congker, ingk, ingcling, ungcl, ungction» ‹conker
*or* conquer, ink, inkling, uncle, unction›. Some words starting with
«con» or «in» are pronounced with /n/ by some speakers, with /N/ by
others; in such cases, Lytspel uses «n» for simplicity, e.g. «conquest,
increment, concreet, inqui'sition» ‹...concrete, inquisition›.
* /n/ is written «nn» when it occurs before /k/ in places where «n» would
be spoken /N/, e.g. «canncan, melenncoli, noamennclaicher» ‹cancan,
melancholy, nomenclature›.
Some sound combinations are written in a special way if they occur at the
end of words:
* Final /O:l/ is written «all», e.g. «ball, in'stall» ‹...install›. This
spelling is preserved in derived words, e.g. «walls, calling».
* Final /S@n/ is written «tion», e.g. «recog'nition, obzur'vaition,
section, per'mition, moation, oation, miu'sition» ‹recognition,
observation, section, permission, motion, ocean, musician›.
* Final /Z@n/ is written «sion», e.g. «vision, con'fiusion, i'quaision»
‹...confusion, equation›.
* The «tion» and «sion» spellings aren't used in words that are derived
by appending «n» or «en» to another word, e.g. «ashen, freshen, Rushan,
Purzhan» ‹ashen, freshen, Russian, Persian› from «ash, fresh, Rusha,
Purzha» ‹ash, fresh, Russia, Persia›.
* The «tion» and «sion» spellings are preserved in derived words (e.g.
«ri'laitionship, tra'ditionel, o'caisionel» ‹relationship, traditional,
occasional›), even if the derived form is irregular (e.g. «nationel»
‹national› from «naition» ‹nation›).
Disambiguating multigraphs (sequences of multiple characters representing a
single sound or an r-colored vowel):
* Spellings involving digraphs (such as «ch, sh, ss, ai, oa, oy, ur») and
trigraphs (such as «arr, eer») are generally read from left to right:
the first letter sequence that *can* be read as a multigraph *should*
be read as such; e.g. «dueel» ‹dual *or* duel› is read as «d-ue-e-l»
(/dj'u:@l/ or /d'u:@l/), «layer» is read as «l-ay-er» (/l'eI@`/).
* But the trigraphs «iai, uai» are read as «i» /i:/ or «u» /u:/ followed
by «ai» (spoken /aI/ at the end of words, /eI/ otherwise), e.g.
«a'preeshiait, flucchuait, raidiai» ‹appreciate, fluctuate, radii›.
* «oic» at the end of words is always spoken /oUIk/ (two separate
vowels), e.g. «hi'roic, stoic» ‹heroic...›.
* Since final /OI/ is spelled «oy», final «oi» unambiguously represents
the two vowels /oUi:/. This combination occasionally occurs in derived
words, e.g. «shoi» ‹showy› from «sho» ‹show›.
* Double «rr» always forms a trigraph with the vowel to its left, e.g.
«Februerri» ‹February› is read as «F-e-b-r-u-err-i».
* In cases where the previous rules would lead to a misreading, Lytspel
recommends inserting a hyphen to indicate the correct reading, e.g.
«Cro-at, po-it, co-in'syd, co-ope'raition, su-er, Lu-eesi'ana,
Aalts-hymer, sheeps-hed» ‹Croat, poet, coincide, cooperation, sewer,
Louisiana, Alzheimer, sheepshead›.
* Those who prefer a more classical form may omit the hyphen between two
vowels and place a diaeresis over the second vowel, e.g. «Croät, poït,
coïn'syd, coöpe'raition, acchuëri, Luëesi'ana».
* Multigraphs ending in «r» may be interrupted by a stress marker before
the final «r» and are still read as multigraphs, e.g. «co-ope'raition,
hor'rific» ‹cooperation, horrific›. The multigraph «ss» is broken in
the middle, e.g. «as'sumption» ‹assumption›.
* Other multigraphs are never interrupted by a stress marker, hence in
such cases a marker has the same effect as a hyphen: it indicates that
the letters to the left and to the right of it should be read in
isolation, e.g. «co'operait» ‹cooperate›.
* In particular, the vowel multigraphs «aw, ay, ow, oy» /O:, eI, aU, OI/
are *not* broken in the rare cases where a stressed vowel follows, to
prevent misreadings. Contrast «draw'ee» ‹drawee› with «a'waik» ‹awake›,
«cay'otic» ‹chaotic› with «ga'yaal» ‹gayal›.
* Hyphens are generally not inserted between a base word and a suffix,
e.g. «truer» from «tru» ‹true›.
* After a prefix or the first part of a compound, a hyphen is only
inserted if the last letter of the first part and the first letter of
the second part would otherwise form one of the combinations «oa, oi,
oo, ou, iu» (each of which represents a single vowel), e.g. «thro-away,
co-ig'zist, blo-out, poli-un'sacheraited» ‹throwaway, coexist, blowout,
polyunsaturated›. In other cases, no hyphens are inserted, e.g.
«shorthand».
* Writers may, of course, insert a hyphen (or a diaeresis) between the
parts of an affixed or compound word whenever they consider such a
visual separator helpful to prevent misreadings or confusion.
Rules for derived and related words:
* In front of suffixes starting with «e, i, y», final «c» is changed to
«k», e.g. «trafiking» ‹trafficking› from «trafic» ‹traffic›.
* Final «c» remains unchanged in front of such suffixes if its
pronunciation changes from /k/ to /s/, e.g. «publicist, publicys»
‹...publicize› from «public».
* In front of suffixes consisting in a single consonant («d, n, s»),
final «i» (unstressed /i:/) becomes «ie» to mark it as long, e.g.
«studied» from «studi» ‹study›, «vairies» ‹varies› from «vairi» ‹vary›.
Otherwise forms such as «*studid» would look like «splendid», but be
spoken quite differently.
* To prevent misreadings, final «o» /oU/ is changed back to «oa» and
final «u» /u:/ to «uu» in front of the same suffixes, e.g. «foload»
‹followed› from «folo» ‹follow›, «chuud» ‹chewed› from «chu» ‹chew›,
«throan» ‹thrown› from «thro» ‹throw›, «struun» ‹strewn› from «stru»
‹strew›, «po'taitoas» ‹potatoes› from «po'taito» ‹potato›, «shuus»
‹shoes› from «shu» ‹shoe›.
* A schwa /@/ at the start of suffixes is written as «a» if the base word
ends in /i:/ or /u:/, e.g. «eesiast» ‹easiest› from «eesi» ‹easy›,
«vairiabl» ‹variable› from «vairi» ‹vary›, «duabl» ‹doable› from «du»
‹do›, «a'greeabl» ‹agreeable› from «a'gree» ‹agree›. This ensures
consistency with the combined spellings «ia» and «ua» used elsewhere
(see above) and prevents confusion with «ie» in words such as
«studied». But note that R-colored schwa remains «er», e.g. «eesier»
‹easier›.
* As noted above, the schwa is omitted between certain consonants and
final «l» or «m». To prevent misreadings, the omitted schwa is restored
as «e» in front of the suffixes «ait/et, erri, ism, ist, oid, uss, ys»
‹ate, ary, ..., ous, ise/ize› as well as before stressed «ee», e.g.
«en'capselait» ‹encapsulate› from «capssl» ‹capsule›, «piupelerri»
‹pupillary› from «piupl» ‹pupil›, «vandelism» ‹vandalism› from «vandl»
‹vandal›, «iuni'vurselism» ‹universalism› from «iuni'vurssl»
‹universal›, «voakelist» ‹vocalist› from «voacl» ‹vocal›, «cristelys,
cristeloid» ‹crystallize, crystalloid› from «cristl» ‹crystal›,
«lybeluss» ‹libelous› and «lybe'lee» ‹libelee› from «lybl» ‹libel›. The
obvious exception are derived words where no schwa is spoken, e.g.
«syclys» ‹cyclize› from «sycl» ‹cycle›, «simplism» from «simpl»
‹simple›.
* Otherwise, end-of-word spellings are preserved in all derived forms as
long as of the base word doesn't change (except for possible shifts of
stress), e.g.
* «c» representing /k/: «publicli, publi'caition» ‹publicly,
publication› from «public»; «me'canics, me'canicl» ‹mechanics,
mechanical› from «me'canic» ‹mechanic›
* «k» representing /k/: «weeks, weekli» ‹...weekly› from «week»
* «ss» representing /s/: «classic» from «class»; «con'vinssd,
con'vinssing» ‹convinced, convincing› from «con'vinss» ‹convince»;
«a'nounssment» ‹announcement› from «a'nounss» ‹announce›;
«prinssess» ‹princess› from «prinss» ‹prince›
* «a» representing /@/: «extras» from «extra», «A'merrican»
‹American› from «A'merrica» ‹America›
* «aw» representing /O:/: «draws, drawn, drawing» from «draw»
* «i» representing unstressed /i:/: «sitis» ‹cities› from «siti»
‹city›; «fansiful, fansiing» ‹fanciful, fancying› from «fansi»
‹fancy›; «hapiness» ‹happiness› from «hapi» ‹happy›
* «o» representing /oU/: «yeloer, yeloest» ‹yellower, yellowest› from
«yelo» ‹yellow›; «vurchus» ‹virtues› from «vurchu» ‹virtue›
* «oy» representing /OI/: «de'stroys, de'stroyd, de'stroyer»
‹destroys, destroyed, destroyer› from «de'stroy» ‹destroy›
* «y» representing /aI/ (unchanged even before vowels): «hyer»
‹higher› from «hy» ‹high›; «su'plyer» ‹supplier› from «su'ply»
‹supply›
* «yr» representing /aI@`/: «in'spyrd» ‹inspired› from «in'spyr»
‹inspire›
* They are also preserved in compounds, e.g. «bakground,
extrate'restriel, fyrwurks›» ‹background, extraterrestrial, fireworks›.
* If the pronunciation of the base word itself changes (beyond mere
shifts of stress), the spelling reflects this, e.g. «cri'aition,
creecher» ‹creation, creature› from «cri'ait» ‹create›; «dis'cution»
‹discussion› from «dis'cuss» ‹discuss›; «con'cluusion» ‹conclusion›
from «con'cluud» ‹conclude›; «acchual» ‹actual› from «act»;
«as'sumption» ‹assumption› from «as'suum» ‹assume›; «men'taliti»
‹mentality› from «mentl» ‹mental›.
* The past tense of regular verbs is formed by appending «ed» if /@d/ is
spoken (e.g. «se'lected, waisted» ‹selected, wasted›), «d» if /d/ or
/t/ is spoken (e.g. «ri'veeld, con'siderd, payd, fixd, con'vinssd»
‹revealed, considered, paid, fixed, convinced›). The past tense of
irregular verbs is spelled as it's spoken, e.g. «kept» from «keep».
* While in tradspell a noun and a related verb are often written the same
even if spoken differently, in Lytspel the spelling reflects the actual
pronunciation, e.g. «a suspect, to sus'pect; a rekerd, to ri'coard; a
houss, to hous» ‹a suspect, to suspect; a record, to record; a house,
to house›.
* Normally Lytspel doesn't use double consonants, except in those cases
where a double consonant is spoken differently than a single one (e.g.
«ss» spoken /s/ in certain contexts where «s» is spoken /z/). However,
double consonant can also occur if they belong to different parts of a
compound or if one belongs to a prefix or suffix and the other to the
base word, e.g. «toatelli, suuper'reejennel, un'nececeri» ‹totally,
superregional, unnecessary›.
* Unstressed final /Iks/ traditionally written ‹ics› is treated as if it
is a plural (and hence written «ics») even if the corresponding
singular form (ending in /Ik/) is unknown or rarely used, e.g.
«astro'fisics, daia'netics» ‹astrophysics, dianetics›. This is for
consistency with the many cases where «ics» /Iks/ indeed marks a plural
or quasi-plural, e.g. «ilec'tronics» ‹electronics› from «ilec'tronic»
‹electronic›.
* For consistency with forms derived by appending «li» ‹ly› to words
ending in «cl» ‹cal› (e.g. «practiclli» ‹practically› from «practicl»
‹practical›), all forms derived by appending ‹ally› (pronounced /@li:/
or /li:/) to words ending in «c« are written «clli», e.g. «baissiclli»
‹basically› from «baissic» ‹basic› «spe'cificlli» ‹specifically› from
«spe'cific» ‹specific›.
Irregular words:
* The vowels in the articles «dhe, a, an» ‹the, a, an› retain their
traditional spelling.
* «ey» ‹eye› is written irregularly to distinguish it from «y» ‹I› and
for easier recognition in compounds such as «fishey» ‹fisheye›.
* «noa» ‹know› is written somewhat irregularly to distinguish it from
«no».
* «oa» ‹owe› is written somewhat irregularly since a verb with just one
letter could be confusing (and also to distinguish it from the
interjection «o» ‹oh›).
* «tuu» ‹too *or* two› is written somewhat irregularly to distinguish it
from «tu» ‹to›.
Uses of the apostrophe:
* Lytspel uses an apostrophe to mark the syllable that carries the main
stress (provided it's not the first one). Additionally, as in
tradspell, apostrophes are used to mark genitives and contractions.
* The genitive is marked by appending «'s», e.g. «mudher's car, Linda's
sister, children's toys» ‹mother's car...›. The genitive form of a
regular plural is formed by appending «'» only, e.g. «taxpayers'
iunien, dogs' tails» ‹taxpayers' union...›.
* «'s» is also used for contractions with «is, has», e.g. «dhair's»
‹there's›.
* «'d» is used for contractions with «had, wood, shood» ‹...would,
should›, e.g. «it'd».
* «'l» ‹'ll› is used for contractions with «wil, shal» ‹will, shall›,
e.g. «shi'l» ‹she'll›.
* The contraction «y'm» ‹I'm› is short for «y am» ‹I am›.
* «'r» ‹'re› is used for contractions with «ar» ‹are›, e.g. «dhay'r»
‹they're›.
* «'v» ‹'ve› is used for contractions with «hav» ‹have›, e.g. «iu'v»
‹you've›.
* «n't» is used for contractions with «not» where the /Q/ is not spoken,
e.g. «shoodn't» ‹shouldn't›. If the first word ends in «n», the second
«n» is omitted: «can't» from «can not». In a few cases, the first word
may be further contracted: «ain't» for one of «am/is/ar/has/hav not»
‹am/is/are/has/have not›, «han't» for «has/hav not» ‹has/have not›,
«shan't» for «shal not» ‹shall not›, «woan't» ‹won't» for «wil not».
The pronunciations of «doan't» ‹don't› and «musn't» ‹mustn't› differ
from the uncontracted forms, and the spelling reflects this.
* In all these cases, the genitive or contraction marker is inserted
after the last vowel and hence cannot be confused with a stress marker.
* In other cases, a traditional contraction marker doubles as a stress
marker in Lytspel, e.g. «o'clok» ‹o'clock› for «ov dhe clok» ‹of the
clock›.
* This also applies to Irish names starting with «O'», e.g. «O'Coner,
O'Neel» ‹O'Connor, O'Neil›. The capitalized «O'» is spoken /oU/ (as in
«boat»). Of course, proper names can be spelled as they please, so many
names won't be regularized according to the Lytspel rules.
* In the nonstandard expression ‹y'all›, short for «iu all» ‹you all›,
the contraction marker is placed in front of the stressed vowel,
marking the original word boundary.
* In a few cases, words are contracted by eliminating a syllable or a
sound for brevity or for literary effect. In these cases, Lytspel
recommends placing a contraction marker before the final consonant in
monosyllabic words («ai'r, nai'r, oa'r, ee'n, ma'm, bru'r» ‹e'er,
ne'er, o'er, e'en, ma'am, br'er› from «ever, never, oaver, eeven,
madem, brudher» ‹..., over, even, madam, brother›) and just using a
regular stress marker otherwise («wair'air, wairso'air, nor'eester»
‹where'er, wheresoe'er, nor'easter› from «wair'ever, wair'soever,
north'eester» ‹wherever, wheresoever, northeaster›).
Inner capitalization instead of stress marker:
* Various Scottish and Irish names start with ‹Mc› or ‹Mac› /m@k/
followed by a capitalized and stressed second syllable. Lytspel
recommends writing these names with «Mc» and omitting the stress
marker, e.g. «McAdem, McDonel» ‹McAdam, McDonnell›. If the stressed
syllable starts with a /k/ sound, that letter is capitalized (and
repeated after the initial «Mc»), e.g. «McCarti, McKee, McQueen»
‹McCarty...›. If any other syllable is stressed, Lytspel recommend
writing the word regularly without inner capitalization, e.g.
«Makintosh» ‹Macintosh *or* McIntosh›.
## English as an International Language
As an international language, English is currently written and spoken quite
differently in various parts of the world.
On the one hand, by using a phonetic spelling, Lytspel eliminates most
differences that traditionally exist between written British (BE) and
American English (AE), e.g. «culer, senter, orgenys, anelys, lycenss,
catalog, aijing, program, chek, gray» ‹colour/color, centre/center,
organise/organize, analyse/analyze, licence/license, catalog/catalogue,
ageing/aging, program/programme, cheque/check, grey/gray›.
On the other hand, tailoring Lytspel to faithfully represent just one
regional variety would cause many deviations from the alphabetic principle
for everyone else. And creating different variants of Lytspel each fitting
just one regional variety would introduce even larger differences between
different regional varieties of written English than traditionally exist
between BE and AE.
Instead of going down either of theses routes, Lytspel had been designed as
some kind of "global compromise." It aims to keep the phonetic principle
reasonably intact for all varieties of spoken English, and particularly for
RP (since the English language originates in England) and GA (since the
United States are the country with the highest number of native English
speakers).
Various details of the Lytspel spellings have already been motivated above
as representing sound distinctions that exist either in RP or in GA, and
the «ue» and «uer» spellings are a compromise used in words spoken
differently in RP and GA. But such compromises are not almost possible
without making the written language extremely complex and unwieldy. In
other cases, Lytspel therefore resolves differences between RP and GA by
preferring the spelling that keeps the written language more similar to
tradspell:
* «a» is used if one variety speaks /a/ and the other /A/, e.g. «last»
* «o» is used if one variety speaks /Q/ and the other /O:/, e.g. «cloth»
* «o» is also used if one variety speaks /Q/ and the other /V/, e.g.
«from»
XXX Describe additional compromise decisions, e.g.
* The one that's more similar to the traditionel spelling is preferred.
* A short vowel such as /@, E, I/ is preferred over a long one such as
/aI, i:/.
* If one variety speaks /Vr/ and the other /3:/, «urr» is used if the
traditional spelling includes ‹rr› (e.g. «current»), otherwise «ur» is
used (e.g. «curij» ‹courage›)?
* «er» is used if RP has /@/ and GA has /y@`/, e.g. «figer» ‹figure›?
* Document that stress marker--free variant is preferred in doubt, e.g.
«adult» rather than «*a'dult», «to dictait» ‹to dictate› rather than
«to *dic'tate», «sabetaazh» ‹sabotage› rather than «*sabo'taazh».
Cf. [American and British English pronunciation
differences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_English_pronunciation_differences)
and [Different spellings for different
pronunciations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_English_spelling_differences#Different_spellings_for_different_pronunciations).
## Limitations of the Current Dictionary
The Lytspel dictionary, as currently published, can distinguish between
words traditionally written the same but pronounced differently
(heteronyms) as long as their grammatical role in a sentence is different
-- one is a noun, while the other is a verb, for example. This allows
distinguishing the verb «cloas» ‹close› from the adjective «cloass», the
noun «object» from the verb «ob'ject», etc. («Dhay wur tu cloass to dhe
doar to cloas it.» ‹They were too close to the door to close it.› / «Y did
not ob'ject to dhe object.» ‹I did not object to the object.›)
However, heteronyms are currently only disambiguated by their grammatical
role (commonly known as *part of speech,* or *POS*), hence if two
heteronyms share the same grammatical role, the dictionary will list only
one of them. The other one should, of course, nevertheless be used when
appropriate. Words where this is the case include (the missing spelling is
listed in parentheses):
* ‹bass›: «baiss» (or «bass» for various fish species)
* ‹drawer›: «dror» (or «drawer» for a person who draws)
* ‹micrometer›: «my'cromiter» (a measuring device; or «mycromeeter» for the
millionth part of a meter)
* ‹prayer›: «prair» (or «prayer» for a person who prays)
* ‹read›: «reed» (or «red» for the past tense)
* ‹subsequence›: «subsiquenss» (for some subsequent occurrence; or
«subseequenss» for a sequence derived from another sequence)
* ‹taxis›: «taxies» (multiple taxis, or taxicabs; or «taxiss», a scientific
term)
* ‹tier›: «teer» (or «tyer» for a a person who ties)
## Overview
TODO This section is older and partially outdated.
This phoneng program suite (short for: Phonetic English) shows how English
is pronounced and offers an alternative spelling system that is more
consistent and easier to learn and use than the traditional spelling.
TODO These programs aren't implemented yet.
The `pronounce` command shows how English texts are pronounced. The
`lytspel` command converts them into a simplified spelling.
The provided tools can also be used to implement your own spelling reform
proposals or to adapt the chosen respellings as needed.
## Installation
The phoneng program suite is written in
[Haskell](https://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/Haskell). To build it from
source, you need the [Cabal](https://www.haskell.org/cabal/) build system.
If you use a Debian-based system, install the `cabal-install` package to
get it.
Afterwards clone this repository from GitHub and run the following commands
in the main directory:
cabal configure && cabal build && cabal install
The compiled programs should now be in your path and ready to run.
## Usage
TODO document
## Files and File Formats
All files are in UTF-8 format (some of them may use just the ASCII subset).
*Line files* (extension: .txt) have one entry per line; line breaks in entries
are therefore not allowed.
*Key-value files* (extension: .txt) are line files where each line represents
a key/value pair. Keys and values are separated by ':'; trailing comments
introduced by '#' are stripped. No escape syntax is supported, hence keys
cannot contain ':', values cannot contain '#', and neither can contain line
breaks.
### Files in data Directory
TODO Update this section.
* `cmudict-phonemes.txt`: key-value file containing a mapping from the
phonemes used in cmudict to the corresponding Phonetic English
phonemes. Used by the `dictbuilder` program.
* `custom.csv`: CSV file listing those words for which a specific
pronunciation should be used. The case of the words listed in the
first field is ignored. The second field may contain the following
values:
* B: use British (RP) pronunciation
* A: use American (GA) pronunciation
* P: use the PhonEng pronunciation
* D: don't add the word to the output dictionary (used for rare
foreign words or names)
* O: leave the spelling of the word unchanged
* Alternatively, a custom pronunciation may be given which is then
used to generate the final spelling
Manually created file; used by `lytspelify`.
* `moby-phonemes.txt`: key-value file containing a mapping from the phonemes
used in Moby to the corresponding Phonetic English phonemes. Used by the
`dictbuilder` program.
* `words-not-in-scowl.txt`: Line file containing words that aren't listed in
SCOWL but should become part of the pronunciation dictionary. Used by the
`dictbuilder` program.
* `phonetic-dict.txt`: Line file containing a mapping from words to their
pronunciations. If there is just a single pronunciations, the entry is
written as `word: pron`. If the pronunciation of a word depends on which
POS (part-of-speed) it is, it is written as `word/n: pron1; v: pron2`
(where "n", "v" etc. are POS tags). Redirects are written as `word:>
target`, e.g. `colour:> color`. Generated by the `dictbuilder` program.
## History: Steps used to Generate the Phonetic Dictionary
Some of the following steps require manual intervention. They are described
here to document the history of phoneng.
Downloaded and installed knowledge sources:
* Downloaded SCOWL and VarCon from [SCOWL And
Friends](http://wordlist.aspell.net/) -- version 2014.08.11 was used to
create the distributed dictionary. Unzipped both of them within the `data`
directory and renamed the resulting subdirectories to `scowl` and `varcon`.
* Downloaded the [CMU Pronouncing
Dictionary](http://www.speech.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/cmudict) -- version 0.7a
was used to create the distributed dictionary. It's enough to download the
file `cmudict.0.7a` and store it in a new `data` subdirectory named
`cmudict`.
* Downloaded the [Moby Pronunciation List by Grady
Ward](http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3205). Created a `data` subdirectory
named `moby` and unzipped it there.
Then run `make` from within the `data` directory, that should handle the
rest. TODO Document PATH requirements.
TODO Or execute the following commands manually (the rest of this section
is outdated and should be deleted or possibly cleaned up):
Invoked the `dictbuilder` program within the `data` directory. This writes
a file called `phonetic-dict.txt`.
Invoked the `csvdict` script. This writes a file called
`phoneng-espeak-dict.csv`.
Invoked the `mergeprons` script. This writes a file called `phonetic-dict.csv`.
Invoked the `lytspelify` script. This writes a file called `lytspel-dict.csv`.
The idea: Spelling should be fun, not a burden. The traditional English
spelling system is afflicted with exceptions and conflicting rules, making
writing and reading texts unnecessary hard.
Lytspel is a proposal for reforming the English spelling in order to make
it strictly follow the alphabetic principle. The alphabetic principle means
that there is a predictable relationship between written letters and spoken
sounds. When you see a written word, you know how to pronounce it (even if
you don't know the word itself), and vice versa.
Traditional English spelling (tradspell) deviates from the alphabetic
principle in many ways. The mapping between written and spoken words is
very complex and riddled with irregularities and exceptions. Lytspel (for
«lytwait speling» or ‹lightweight spelling›) is a proposal to change this
while stilling keeping as much visual similarity to tradspell as reasonably
possible.
Lytspel not only creates an unambiguous mapping between the sounds used in
English and their written representations, it also indicates which syllable
in each word is the stressed one.
In addition to the reform proposal, there will be a full dictionary and a
converter that translates traditional spelling into Lytspel. Both are
currently work in progress.
Here are two example paragraphs written in Lytspel. The first is [The North
Wind and the
Sun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_North_Wind_and_the_Sun), one of
Aesop's fables that's frequently used as an example in phonetics, while the
second is made up of two nonsense sentences that contain most of the sounds
of English.
> Dhe North Wind and dhe Sun wur di'spiuting wich wos dhe strongger, wen a
> traveler caim a'long rapd in a worm cloak. Dhay a'greed dhat dhe won hu
> furst su'xeeded in maiking dhe traveler taik his cloak of shood bee
> con'siderd strongger dhan dhe udher. Dhen dhe North Wind blu as hard as
> hi cood, but dhe mor hi blu dhe mor cloassli did dhe traveler foald his
> cloak e'round him; and at last dhe North Wind gaiv up dhe a'tempt. Dhen
> dhe Sun shynd out wormli, and i'meediatli dhe traveler took of his cloak.
> And so dhe North Wind wos o'blyjd tu con'fess dhat dhe Sun wos dhe
> strongger ov dhe tuu.
>
> Dhat quik baizh fox jumpd in dhe air oaver eech thin dog under a caam
> autum muun. Look out, y shout, for hi's foild iu yet a'gen, cri'aiting
> cayoss.
Here are the same paragraphs written in tradspell. Lytspel might look a
bit unusual at first, but should be easy to get used too. Just try reading
it out aloud and you'll soon get the hang of it.
> The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a
> traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who
> first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be
> considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as
> he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his
> cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then
> the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his
> cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the
> stronger of the two.
>
> That quick beige fox jumped in the air over each thin dog under a calm
> autumn moon. Look out, I shout, for he's foiled you yet again, creating
> chaos.
## Conventions and Abbreviations
The following formatting conventions are used in this document:
* «double guillemets» for Lytspel (and spellings that haven't changed)
* ‹single guillemets› for traditional spellings
* /slashes/ for phonetics, written in the
[SAMPA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_Assessment_Methods_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart_for_English)
alphabet (with some slight modifications to make it more suitable for
English)
Abbreviations used:
* RP: [Received
Pronunciation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Pronunciation),
the standard form of English spoken in the United Kingdom, especially
in England and Wales
* GA: [General American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_American),
English as typically spoken in the United States
## The Rules of Lytspel
The syllable that carries the primary stress in a word is preceded by an
apostrophe, e.g. «dis'cuss, in'telijent, co'miti, cri'ait» ‹discuss,
intelligent, committee, create›. No stress marker is used if the word only
has a single syllable or if the first syllable carries the primary stress,
e.g. «big, week, camel, garden».
The short vowels are written as follows:
* «a» /a/ as in «cat»
* «e» /E/ as in «pen»
* «i» /I/ as in «big»
* «o» /Q/ as in «dog»
* «oo» /U/ as in «book»
* «u» /V/ as in «club»
The long vowels and diphthongs are written as follows:
* «aa» /A/ as in «paam, faadher» ‹palm, father›
* «ai» /eI/ as in «aim, saint, faiss» ‹...face›
* «au» /O:/ as in «auther, paus» ‹author, pause›
* «ee» /i:/ as in «tree, teem» ‹...team›
* «oa» /oU/ as in «boat, hoam» ‹...home›
* «oi» /OI/ as in «oil, point, a'void» ‹...avoid›
* «ou» /aU/ as in «mouth, doun» ‹...down›
* «uu» /u:/ as in «muun, ex'cluud, gruup» ‹moon, exclude, group›
* «iu» (/yU/ or /ju:/) as in «valiu, kiut, com'piuter, modiulait» ‹value,
cute, computer, modulate›
* The spelling «ue» is used in words that are typically spoken with /yU/
or /ju:/ in RP, with /u:/ in GA, e.g. «due, nuetrel, tuen» ‹...neutral,
tune›
* «y» /aI/ as in «pryss, styl, dry» ‹price, style...›
The consonants are written as follows:
* «b» /b/ as in «bed»
* «ch» /tS/ as in «much»
* «d» /d/ as in «desk»
* «dh» /D/ as in «dhem» ‹them›
* «f» /f/ as in «fat»
* «g» /g/ as in «big, garden, gess» ‹...guess›
* «h» /h/ as in «hot»
* «j» /dZ/ as in «joy, dijit» ‹...digit›
* «l» /l/ as in «leg»
* «m» /m/ as in «mad»
* «n» /n/ as in «now»
* «ng» /N/ as in «long»
* «p» /p/ as in «pop»
* «r» /r/ as in «run»
* «sh» /S/ as in «ship»
* «t» /t/ as in «test»
* «th» /T/ as in «thin»
* «v» /v/ as in «ever»
* «w» /w/ as in «west, wen» ‹...when›. Note: In some English accepts, the
«w» in «wen» ‹when› is spoken differently than the «w» in «west», but
since most accents (including RP and GA) no longer make this
difference, it is not preserved in Lytspel (cf. [wine-whine
merger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8wh%E2%9F%A9#Wine.E2.80.93whine_merger)).
* «y» /j/ as in «yet»
* «zh» /Z/ as in «mi'raazh» ‹mirage›
* The sound /k/ is written as «c» or «k», depending on context:
* «k» is used before «e, i, y», e.g. «keep, king, kynd,
calkyu'laition» ‹...kind, calculation›
* «k» is also used before «h» to prevent confusion with the digraph
«ch» /tS/, e.g. «lunkhed» ‹lunkhead›
* «c» is used before any other letter, e.g. «cat, cost, crisp»
* «c» is also used at the end of words ending in unstressed /ak/ or
/Ik/, e.g. «mainiac, majic, public» ‹maniac, magic...›
* «k» is used at the end of other words ending in /k/, e.g. «book,
drink, quik, speek, naimsaik» ‹...quick, speak, namesake›
* The sound /s/ is written as «c», «s», or «ss», depending on context:
* «c» is used between any vowel and a vowel starting with «e, i, y»,
e.g. «deecent, ex'plicit, nececeri, de'cyd» ‹decent, explicit,
necessary, decide›
* «ss» is used between any vowel and a vowel starting with «a, o, u»,
e.g. «as'sault, epissoad, as'sumption» ‹assault, episode,
assumption›. Note: If a stressed syllable starts with «ss», the
stress marker is inserted before the second «s».
* «ss» is also used at the end of words except after any of the
consonants /f, k, p, t, T/, e.g. «less, miss, evidenss»
‹...evidence›
* «s» is used anywhere else, e.g. «sun, desk, chips, up'sets»
‹...upsets›
* «s» is also used in the prefixes «dis, mis» regardless of which
letter follows, e.g. «disa'gree, disen'chantment, misin'turpret,
misunder'stand» ‹disagree, disenchantment, misinterpret,
misunderstand›
* The sound /z/ is written as «s» or «z», depending on context:
* «s» is used between two vowels, e.g. «visit, eesi, dusen, di'syr,
bi'sar, ri'sult» ‹...easy, dozen, desire, bizarre, result›
* «s» is also used at the end of words except after any of the
consonants /f, k, p, t, T/, e.g. «his, wishes, meens, paus, quis»
‹...means, pause, quiz›
* «z» is used anywhere else, e.g. «zeero, ig'zact, ob'zurv» ‹zero,
exact, observe›
The schwa /@/:
* The schwa is an unstressed and neutral vowel that occurs frequently in
English words. Lytspel generally writes it as «e» or «u».
* «u» is used whenever the traditional spelling contains this vowel, e.g.
«album, nurvuss, sus'pend» ‹...nervous, suspend›.
* «e» is used otherwise, e.g. «camel, problem, hiden, sentrel»
‹...hidden, central›.
* This means that Lytspel doesn't distinguish between unstressed /V/ as
in «funda'mentl» ‹fundamental› or /E/ as in «index» and the schwa /@/.
However, since the unstressed form of these vowels sounds quite similar
to the schwa and there is often no agreement between speakers whether
to use one or the other, this shouldn't hurt.
* A schwa immediately preceding the primarily stressed syllable can also
be represented by one of the other three vowel letters («a, i, o», but
not «y»), e.g. «a» in «a'bout» ‹about›, «i» in «imaji'naition»
‹imagination›, «o» in «com'piut» ‹compute›. The reason for this is that
the vowel preceding the stressed syllable is often spoken so quickly
that it's hard to decide whether a schwa or one of the short vowels is
pronounced and not all speakers will agree on which one to use. For
clarity, it's therefore better to stick with the original
representation of the vowel in such cases, even if most speakers might
reduce it to a schwa. Additionally, the reduced vowel often becomes
clearly audible in related words, e.g. while the second «i» in
«imaji'naition» ‹imagination› is often reduced to a schwa, in «i'majin»
‹imagine› it's clearly audible as /I/.
* Between some consonant pairs at the end of words, the schwa is omitted
in writing; since these pairs never occur *without* an intervening
vowel at the end of words, there is no risk of confusion:
* Final /s@l/ is written «ssl», e.g. «counssl, mussl» ‹council,
muscle›
* Final /z@l/ is written «sl», e.g. «pro'poasl, pusl» ‹proposal,
puzzle›
* The schwa is also omitted between any of /b, p, d, t, f, g, k/ and
final /l/, e.g. «flexibl, simpl, midl, hospitl, litl, bafl, singgl,
leegl, sta'tisticl, articl» ‹flexible, simple, middle, hospital,
little, baffle, single, legal, statistical, article›. An exception
is the suffix «ful», e.g. «helpful, meeningful» ‹...meaningful›
(abbreviating this suffix to "fl" would be needlessly confusing and
could lead to misreadings).
* Final /z@m/ is written «sm», e.g. «criticism, sarcasm»
* The schwa is also omitted between /D/ and final /m/, e.g.
«algeridhm, ridhm» ‹algorithm, rhythm›
Before «r», the vowels are spelled as follows:
* «air» /e@/ as in «pair, shair, vairi'aition» ‹...share, variation›
* «ar» /Ar/ as in «dark, argyument» ‹...argument›
* «arr» /ar/ as in «carri, em'barress» ‹...embarrass›
* «eer» /i@/ as in «cheer, yeer» ‹...year›. Note: GA speakers often
pronounce this in the same way as the «ir» /Ir/ in «mirer» ‹mirror›
([mirror–mere
merger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/r/#Mirror.E2.80.93mere_merger)).
* «er» /@`/ as in «number, modern» (r-colored schwa). Note: In RP and
other [non-rhotic
accents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English), this
usually sounds like a normal schwa; likewise, «r» after other vowels is
often inaudible or reduced to a schwa.
* «err» /Er/ as in «merry, errer» ‹...error›
* «ir» /Ir/ as in «mirer, iritait» ‹mirror, irritate›
* «oar» /or/ as in «poart, ig'noar, keeboard» ‹port, ignore, keyboard›
* «or» /O:r/ as in «north, order, iuniform» ‹...uniform›. Note: Most RP
speakers pronounce this in the same way as the «oar» /or/ in «board»,
but the two sounds are distinguished in GA.
* «orr» /Qr/ as in «sorri, to'morro» ‹sorry, tomorrow›. Note: Most GA
speakers pronounce this in the same way as the «or» /O:r/ in «north»,
but the two sounds are distinguished in RP.
* «oor» /Ur/ as in «poor, toor, in'shoorenss» ‹...tour, insurance›
* «iur» (/ju:r/ or /jUr/) as in «Iurep, piur, ob'skiur» ‹Europe, pure,
obscure›
* The spelling «uer» is used in words that are typically spoken with
/ju:r/ or /jUr/ in RP, with /Ur/ in GA, e.g. «duering, nuerel» ‹during,
neural›
* «our» /aUr/ as in «flour, our» ‹flour, our *or* hour›
* «ur» /3:/ as in «turn, purfect, furst, con'surn, obzur'vaition»
‹...perfect, first, concern, observation›. This sound only occurs
before «r» and can be considered a stronger (and often stressed)
variant of the schwa.
* «urr» /Vr/ as in «hurri, current» ‹hurry...›
* «yr» is spoken /aI@`/ at the end of words (e.g. «fyr, in'spyr» ‹fire,
inspire›), /aIr/ elsewhere (e.g. «vyruss, yreni, spyrel» ‹virus, irony,
spiral›)
Some vowels are spelled differently at the end of words or before other
vowels:
* /eI/ is spelled «ay» at the end of words and before other vowels
(instead of «ai»), e.g. «play, holiday, layer, cayoss» ‹...chaos›.
* /aI/ is spelled «ai» before other vowels (instead of «y»), e.g.
«dai'ameter, quaiet, vaielenss, aiern, haierarki, Ha'waii» ‹diameter,
quiet, violence, iron, hierarchy, Hawaii›. This prevents confusion with
the consonant /j/ (as in «yet») which is also spelled «y» but only
occurs before vowels. There is also no risk of confusion with /eI/ (as
in «aim, layer») which is always spelled «ay» in this position.
* The same spelling is used if /aI/ occurs after a vowel at the end of a
word, e.g. «raidiai» ‹radii›.
* /O:/ is spelled «aw» at the end of words and before other vowels
(instead of «au»), e.g. «law, drawing».
* Final /E/ is spelled «eh» (instead of «e»), e.g. «eh, Yaaweh
‹...Yahweh›».
* Unstressed /i:/ is spelled «i» at the end of words and before other
vowels (instead of «ee»), e.g. «fansi, ne'ceciti, vidio, cri'aition»
‹fancy, necessity, video, creation›. This means that Lytspel cannot
distinguish between unstressed /i:/ and unstressed /I/ (as in «big») in
these positions, but that shouldn't hurt, as /I/ is rarely used in
these positions and dictionaries often disagree on which of these
sounds to use anyway.
* This spelling is also used in the personal pronouns ending in /i:/ (as
these are often less stressed than other words in a sentence): «hi,
shi, wi, mi» ‹he, she, we, me›. And it's used at the end of prefixes
such as «anti, semi» (spoken with /i:/ by many speakers, with /aI/ by
others) as well as «di, pri, ri» ‹de, pre, re› (even if the prefix is
stressed), e.g. «anti'aircraft, anti'soashel; semi'fynel,
semiauto'matic; di'graid, di'bug; prima'choor, pri'requisit; ri'act,
ripro'duess» ‹antiaircraft, antisocial; semifinal, semiautomatic;
degrade, debug; premature, prerequisite; react, reproduce›.
* /oU/ is spelled «o» at the end of words and before other vowels
(instead of «oa»), e.g. «yelo, zeero, co'operait, po'etic, sho»
‹yellow, zero, cooperate, poetic, show›. This poses little risk of
confusion, as /Q/ (as in «dog») occurs rarely or never before other
vowels. (Final /Q/ could be written «oh», but in practice it never
seems to occur.)
* This spelling is also used at the end of prefixes such as «astro, baio,
endo, ethno, ferro, fyto, galveno, hetero, hypo, imyuno, jio, keemo,
macro, mycro, nio, nuemo, nuero, pailio, soacio, spectro, suudo,
thurmo, ysso» ‹astro, bio, endo, ethno, ferro, phyto, galvano, hetero,
hypo, immuno, geo, chemo, macro, micro, neo, pneumo, neuro, paleo,
socio, spectro, pseudo, thermo, iso›, e.g. «baio'kemistri,
ethno'sentric, hetero'secshual, imyunodi'fishenssi, jio'fisicl,
keemo'therrepi, mycrowaiv, nio'classic, nuero'surjeri, suudosaienss,
thurmody'namics» ‹biochemistry, ethnocentric, heterosexual,
immunodeficiency, geophysical, chemotherapy, microwave, neoclassic,
neurosurgery, pseudoscience, thermodynamics›.
* /OI/ is spelled «oy» at the end of words and before other vowels
(instead of «oi»), e.g. «boy, en'joy, em'ployi» ‹...enjoy, employee›.
* /aU/ is spelled «ow» at the end of words and before other vowels
(instead of «ou»), e.g. «now, power, a'low» ‹...allow›.
* /u:/ is spelled «u» at the end of words and before other vowels
(instead of «uu»), e.g. «clu, ishu, sichu'aition» ‹clue, issue,
situation›. This poses little risk of confusion, as /V/ (as in «bus»)
occurs rarely or never before other vowels.
* Final /V/ is spelled «uh» (instead of «u»), e.g. «huh».
* Final schwa /@/ is spelled «a» (instead of «e» or «u»), e.g. «extra,
daita» ‹...data›. (Should unstressed /a/ (as in «cat») occur at the end
of words, it could be written «ah», but in practice it never seems to
occur.)
* Schwa /@/ before other vowels is always spelled «e» (never «u») to
prevent confusion with /u:/ (spelled «u» in this position). Schwa in
this position is very rare.
Spellings involving several sounds:
* The vowel combination /i:@/ or /I@/ is written «ia», e.g.
«mis'teeriass, ma'teerial, meediam, obviass, vairiabl, airia,
i'meediat» ‹mysterious, material, medium, obvious, variable, area,
immediate›. In a few words, «ia» instead represents /i:a/, e.g.
«en'thuesiasm, zoadiac» ‹enthusiasm, zodiac› (this distinction is not
represented in writing).
* The R-colored vowel combination /i:@`/ is written «ier», e.g. «thieri»
‹theory›.
* The vowel combination /oU@/ is written «oe», e.g. «boe, coe'lition,
ys'socroess» ‹boa, coalition, isochroous›. In a few words, «oe» instead
represents /oUE/, e.g. «floem» ‹phloem› (this distinction is not
represented in writing).
* The vowel combination /u:@/ or /U@/ is written «ua», e.g. «acchual,
indi'vijual, influanss, soo'purfluass, crual» ‹actual, individual,
influence, superfluous, cruel›. In a few words, «ua» instead represents
/u:a/, e.g. «bivuac» ‹bivouac› (this distinction is not represented in
writing).
* Likewise, /ju:@/ and /jU@/ are written «iua», e.g. «am'bigiuass,
maniual» ‹ambiguous, manual›.
* The consonant combination /kw/ is written «qu», e.g. «quit, ri'quest»
‹...request›; the letter «q» only occurs in this combination.
* The sound combination /ks/ is written «x», e.g. «mix, next, ex'plicit,
axident» ‹...explicit, accident›.
* Since «ng» represents the single sound /N/ (as in «long»), the sound
combination /ng/ is written «n'g» if a stress marker is needed in this
position (e.g. «en'gaij, in'grain» ‹engage, ingrain›), «nng» otherwise
(e.g. «cairnngorm, martenngail» ‹cairngorm, martingale›).
* Before /k/, «n» is pronounced /N/ rather then /n/ (e.g. «bank,
tranquil, dis'tinct, bron'kytiss» ‹...distinct, bronchitis›), except if
«n» and /k/ belong to different parts of a compound (e.g. «mankynd,
reincoat» ‹mankind, raincoat›) or if a word starts with any of «con,
en, in, non, un» followed by a /k/ sound (e.g. «con'cluusion,
en'counter, in'compitent, increess, noncon'foarmist, un'cleer»
‹conclusion, encounter, incompetent, increase, nonconformist,
unclear›).
* If /Nk/ is spoken where the preceding rule suggests /nk/, the /N/ is
written «ng», e.g. «congker, ingk, ingcling, ungcl, ungction» ‹conker
*or* conquer, ink, inkling, uncle, unction›. Some words starting with
«con» or «in» are pronounced with /n/ by some speakers, with /N/ by
others; in such cases, Lytspel uses «n» for simplicity, e.g. «conquest,
increment, concreet, inqui'sition» ‹...concrete, inquisition›.
* /n/ is written «nn» when it occurs before /k/ in places where «n» would
be spoken /N/, e.g. «canncan, melenncoli, noamennclaicher» ‹cancan,
melancholy, nomenclature›.
Some sound combinations are written in a special way if they occur at the
end of words:
* Final /O:l/ is written «all», e.g. «ball, in'stall» ‹...install›. This
spelling is preserved in derived words, e.g. «walls, calling».
* Final /S@n/ is written «tion», e.g. «recog'nition, obzur'vaition,
section, per'mition, moation, oation, miu'sition» ‹recognition,
observation, section, permission, motion, ocean, musician›.
* Final /Z@n/ is written «sion», e.g. «vision, con'fiusion, i'quaision»
‹...confusion, equation›.
* The «tion» and «sion» spellings aren't used in words that are derived
by appending «n» or «en» to another word, e.g. «ashen, freshen, Rushan,
Purzhan» ‹ashen, freshen, Russian, Persian› from «ash, fresh, Rusha,
Purzha» ‹ash, fresh, Russia, Persia›.
* The «tion» and «sion» spellings are preserved in derived words (e.g.
«ri'laitionship, tra'ditionel, o'caisionel» ‹relationship, traditional,
occasional›), even if the derived form is irregular (e.g. «nationel»
‹national› from «naition» ‹nation›).
Disambiguating multigraphs (sequences of multiple characters representing a
single sound or an r-colored vowel):
* Spellings involving digraphs (such as «ch, sh, ss, ai, oa, oy, ur») and
trigraphs (such as «arr, eer») are generally read from left to right:
the first letter sequence that *can* be read as a multigraph *should*
be read as such; e.g. «dueel» ‹dual *or* duel› is read as «d-ue-e-l»
(/dj'u:@l/ or /d'u:@l/), «layer» is read as «l-ay-er» (/l'eI@`/).
* But the trigraphs «iai, uai» are read as «i» /i:/ or «u» /u:/ followed
by «ai» (spoken /aI/ at the end of words, /eI/ otherwise), e.g.
«a'preeshiait, flucchuait, raidiai» ‹appreciate, fluctuate, radii›.
* «oic» at the end of words is always spoken /oUIk/ (two separate
vowels), e.g. «hi'roic, stoic» ‹heroic...›.
* Since final /OI/ is spelled «oy», final «oi» unambiguously represents
the two vowels /oUi:/. This combination occasionally occurs in derived
words, e.g. «shoi» ‹showy› from «sho» ‹show›.
* Double «rr» always forms a trigraph with the vowel to its left, e.g.
«Februerri» ‹February› is read as «F-e-b-r-u-err-i».
* In cases where the previous rules would lead to a misreading, Lytspel
recommends inserting a hyphen to indicate the correct reading, e.g.
«Cro-at, po-it, co-in'syd, co-ope'raition, su-er, Lu-eesi'ana,
Aalts-hymer, sheeps-hed» ‹Croat, poet, coincide, cooperation, sewer,
Louisiana, Alzheimer, sheepshead›.
* Those who prefer a more classical form may omit the hyphen between two
vowels and place a diaeresis over the second vowel, e.g. «Croät, poït,
coïn'syd, coöpe'raition, acchuëri, Luëesi'ana».
* Multigraphs ending in «r» may be interrupted by a stress marker before
the final «r» and are still read as multigraphs, e.g. «co-ope'raition,
hor'rific» ‹cooperation, horrific›. The multigraph «ss» is broken in
the middle, e.g. «as'sumption» ‹assumption›.
* Other multigraphs are never interrupted by a stress marker, hence in
such cases a marker has the same effect as a hyphen: it indicates that
the letters to the left and to the right of it should be read in
isolation, e.g. «co'operait» ‹cooperate›.
* In particular, the vowel multigraphs «aw, ay, ow, oy» /O:, eI, aU, OI/
are *not* broken in the rare cases where a stressed vowel follows, to
prevent misreadings. Contrast «draw'ee» ‹drawee› with «a'waik» ‹awake›,
«cay'otic» ‹chaotic› with «ga'yaal» ‹gayal›.
* Hyphens are generally not inserted between a base word and a suffix,
e.g. «truer» from «tru» ‹true›.
* After a prefix or the first part of a compound, a hyphen is only
inserted if the last letter of the first part and the first letter of
the second part would otherwise form one of the combinations «oa, oi,
oo, ou, iu» (each of which represents a single vowel), e.g. «thro-away,
co-ig'zist, blo-out, poli-un'sacheraited» ‹throwaway, coexist, blowout,
polyunsaturated›. In other cases, no hyphens are inserted, e.g.
«shorthand».
* Writers may, of course, insert a hyphen (or a diaeresis) between the
parts of an affixed or compound word whenever they consider such a
visual separator helpful to prevent misreadings or confusion.
Rules for derived and related words:
* In front of suffixes starting with «e, i, y», final «c» is changed to
«k», e.g. «trafiking» ‹trafficking› from «trafic» ‹traffic›.
* Final «c» remains unchanged in front of such suffixes if its
pronunciation changes from /k/ to /s/, e.g. «publicist, publicys»
‹...publicize› from «public».
* In front of suffixes consisting in a single consonant («d, n, s»),
final «i» (unstressed /i:/) becomes «ie» to mark it as long, e.g.
«studied» from «studi» ‹study›, «vairies» ‹varies› from «vairi» ‹vary›.
Otherwise forms such as «*studid» would look like «splendid», but be
spoken quite differently.
* To prevent misreadings, final «o» /oU/ is changed back to «oa» and
final «u» /u:/ to «uu» in front of the same suffixes, e.g. «foload»
‹followed› from «folo» ‹follow›, «chuud» ‹chewed› from «chu» ‹chew›,
«throan» ‹thrown› from «thro» ‹throw›, «struun» ‹strewn› from «stru»
‹strew›, «po'taitoas» ‹potatoes› from «po'taito» ‹potato›, «shuus»
‹shoes› from «shu» ‹shoe›.
* A schwa /@/ at the start of suffixes is written as «a» if the base word
ends in /i:/ or /u:/, e.g. «eesiast» ‹easiest› from «eesi» ‹easy›,
«vairiabl» ‹variable› from «vairi» ‹vary›, «duabl» ‹doable› from «du»
‹do›, «a'greeabl» ‹agreeable› from «a'gree» ‹agree›. This ensures
consistency with the combined spellings «ia» and «ua» used elsewhere
(see above) and prevents confusion with «ie» in words such as
«studied». But note that R-colored schwa remains «er», e.g. «eesier»
‹easier›.
* As noted above, the schwa is omitted between certain consonants and
final «l» or «m». To prevent misreadings, the omitted schwa is restored
as «e» in front of the suffixes «ait/et, erri, ism, ist, oid, uss, ys»
‹ate, ary, ..., ous, ise/ize› as well as before stressed «ee», e.g.
«en'capselait» ‹encapsulate› from «capssl» ‹capsule›, «piupelerri»
‹pupillary› from «piupl» ‹pupil›, «vandelism» ‹vandalism› from «vandl»
‹vandal›, «iuni'vurselism» ‹universalism› from «iuni'vurssl»
‹universal›, «voakelist» ‹vocalist› from «voacl» ‹vocal›, «cristelys,
cristeloid» ‹crystallize, crystalloid› from «cristl» ‹crystal›,
«lybeluss» ‹libelous› and «lybe'lee» ‹libelee› from «lybl» ‹libel›. The
obvious exception are derived words where no schwa is spoken, e.g.
«syclys» ‹cyclize› from «sycl» ‹cycle›, «simplism» from «simpl»
‹simple›.
* Otherwise, end-of-word spellings are preserved in all derived forms as
long as of the base word doesn't change (except for possible shifts of
stress), e.g.
* «c» representing /k/: «publicli, publi'caition» ‹publicly,
publication› from «public»; «me'canics, me'canicl» ‹mechanics,
mechanical› from «me'canic» ‹mechanic›
* «k» representing /k/: «weeks, weekli» ‹...weekly› from «week»
* «ss» representing /s/: «classic» from «class»; «con'vinssd,
con'vinssing» ‹convinced, convincing› from «con'vinss» ‹convince»;
«a'nounssment» ‹announcement› from «a'nounss» ‹announce›;
«prinssess» ‹princess› from «prinss» ‹prince›
* «a» representing /@/: «extras» from «extra», «A'merrican»
‹American› from «A'merrica» ‹America›
* «aw» representing /O:/: «draws, drawn, drawing» from «draw»
* «i» representing unstressed /i:/: «sitis» ‹cities› from «siti»
‹city›; «fansiful, fansiing» ‹fanciful, fancying› from «fansi»
‹fancy›; «hapiness» ‹happiness› from «hapi» ‹happy›
* «o» representing /oU/: «yeloer, yeloest» ‹yellower, yellowest› from
«yelo» ‹yellow›; «vurchus» ‹virtues› from «vurchu» ‹virtue›
* «oy» representing /OI/: «de'stroys, de'stroyd, de'stroyer»
‹destroys, destroyed, destroyer› from «de'stroy» ‹destroy›
* «y» representing /aI/ (unchanged even before vowels): «hyer»
‹higher› from «hy» ‹high›; «su'plyer» ‹supplier› from «su'ply»
‹supply›
* «yr» representing /aI@`/: «in'spyrd» ‹inspired› from «in'spyr»
‹inspire›
* They are also preserved in compounds, e.g. «bakground,
extrate'restriel, fyrwurks›» ‹background, extraterrestrial, fireworks›.
* If the pronunciation of the base word itself changes (beyond mere
shifts of stress), the spelling reflects this, e.g. «cri'aition,
creecher» ‹creation, creature› from «cri'ait» ‹create›; «dis'cution»
‹discussion› from «dis'cuss» ‹discuss›; «con'cluusion» ‹conclusion›
from «con'cluud» ‹conclude›; «acchual» ‹actual› from «act»;
«as'sumption» ‹assumption› from «as'suum» ‹assume›; «men'taliti»
‹mentality› from «mentl» ‹mental›.
* The past tense of regular verbs is formed by appending «ed» if /@d/ is
spoken (e.g. «se'lected, waisted» ‹selected, wasted›), «d» if /d/ or
/t/ is spoken (e.g. «ri'veeld, con'siderd, payd, fixd, con'vinssd»
‹revealed, considered, paid, fixed, convinced›). The past tense of
irregular verbs is spelled as it's spoken, e.g. «kept» from «keep».
* While in tradspell a noun and a related verb are often written the same
even if spoken differently, in Lytspel the spelling reflects the actual
pronunciation, e.g. «a suspect, to sus'pect; a rekerd, to ri'coard; a
houss, to hous» ‹a suspect, to suspect; a record, to record; a house,
to house›.
* Normally Lytspel doesn't use double consonants, except in those cases
where a double consonant is spoken differently than a single one (e.g.
«ss» spoken /s/ in certain contexts where «s» is spoken /z/). However,
double consonant can also occur if they belong to different parts of a
compound or if one belongs to a prefix or suffix and the other to the
base word, e.g. «toatelli, suuper'reejennel, un'nececeri» ‹totally,
superregional, unnecessary›.
* Unstressed final /Iks/ traditionally written ‹ics› is treated as if it
is a plural (and hence written «ics») even if the corresponding
singular form (ending in /Ik/) is unknown or rarely used, e.g.
«astro'fisics, daia'netics» ‹astrophysics, dianetics›. This is for
consistency with the many cases where «ics» /Iks/ indeed marks a plural
or quasi-plural, e.g. «ilec'tronics» ‹electronics› from «ilec'tronic»
‹electronic›.
* For consistency with forms derived by appending «li» ‹ly› to words
ending in «cl» ‹cal› (e.g. «practiclli» ‹practically› from «practicl»
‹practical›), all forms derived by appending ‹ally› (pronounced /@li:/
or /li:/) to words ending in «c« are written «clli», e.g. «baissiclli»
‹basically› from «baissic» ‹basic› «spe'cificlli» ‹specifically› from
«spe'cific» ‹specific›.
Irregular words:
* The vowels in the articles «dhe, a, an» ‹the, a, an› retain their
traditional spelling.
* «ey» ‹eye› is written irregularly to distinguish it from «y» ‹I› and
for easier recognition in compounds such as «fishey» ‹fisheye›.
* «noa» ‹know› is written somewhat irregularly to distinguish it from
«no».
* «oa» ‹owe› is written somewhat irregularly since a verb with just one
letter could be confusing (and also to distinguish it from the
interjection «o» ‹oh›).
* «tuu» ‹too *or* two› is written somewhat irregularly to distinguish it
from «tu» ‹to›.
Uses of the apostrophe:
* Lytspel uses an apostrophe to mark the syllable that carries the main
stress (provided it's not the first one). Additionally, as in
tradspell, apostrophes are used to mark genitives and contractions.
* The genitive is marked by appending «'s», e.g. «mudher's car, Linda's
sister, children's toys» ‹mother's car...›. The genitive form of a
regular plural is formed by appending «'» only, e.g. «taxpayers'
iunien, dogs' tails» ‹taxpayers' union...›.
* «'s» is also used for contractions with «is, has», e.g. «dhair's»
‹there's›.
* «'d» is used for contractions with «had, wood, shood» ‹...would,
should›, e.g. «it'd».
* «'l» ‹'ll› is used for contractions with «wil, shal» ‹will, shall›,
e.g. «shi'l» ‹she'll›.
* The contraction «y'm» ‹I'm› is short for «y am» ‹I am›.
* «'r» ‹'re› is used for contractions with «ar» ‹are›, e.g. «dhay'r»
‹they're›.
* «'v» ‹'ve› is used for contractions with «hav» ‹have›, e.g. «iu'v»
‹you've›.
* «n't» is used for contractions with «not» where the /Q/ is not spoken,
e.g. «shoodn't» ‹shouldn't›. If the first word ends in «n», the second
«n» is omitted: «can't» from «can not». In a few cases, the first word
may be further contracted: «ain't» for one of «am/is/ar/has/hav not»
‹am/is/are/has/have not›, «han't» for «has/hav not» ‹has/have not›,
«shan't» for «shal not» ‹shall not›, «woan't» ‹won't» for «wil not».
The pronunciations of «doan't» ‹don't› and «musn't» ‹mustn't› differ
from the uncontracted forms, and the spelling reflects this.
* In all these cases, the genitive or contraction marker is inserted
after the last vowel and hence cannot be confused with a stress marker.
* In other cases, a traditional contraction marker doubles as a stress
marker in Lytspel, e.g. «o'clok» ‹o'clock› for «ov dhe clok» ‹of the
clock›.
* This also applies to Irish names starting with «O'», e.g. «O'Coner,
O'Neel» ‹O'Connor, O'Neil›. The capitalized «O'» is spoken /oU/ (as in
«boat»). Of course, proper names can be spelled as they please, so many
names won't be regularized according to the Lytspel rules.
* In the nonstandard expression ‹y'all›, short for «iu all» ‹you all›,
the contraction marker is placed in front of the stressed vowel,
marking the original word boundary.
* In a few cases, words are contracted by eliminating a syllable or a
sound for brevity or for literary effect. In these cases, Lytspel
recommends placing a contraction marker before the final consonant in
monosyllabic words («ai'r, nai'r, oa'r, ee'n, ma'm, bru'r» ‹e'er,
ne'er, o'er, e'en, ma'am, br'er› from «ever, never, oaver, eeven,
madem, brudher» ‹..., over, even, madam, brother›) and just using a
regular stress marker otherwise («wair'air, wairso'air, nor'eester»
‹where'er, wheresoe'er, nor'easter› from «wair'ever, wair'soever,
north'eester» ‹wherever, wheresoever, northeaster›).
Inner capitalization instead of stress marker:
* Various Scottish and Irish names start with ‹Mc› or ‹Mac› /m@k/
followed by a capitalized and stressed second syllable. Lytspel
recommends writing these names with «Mc» and omitting the stress
marker, e.g. «McAdem, McDonel» ‹McAdam, McDonnell›. If the stressed
syllable starts with a /k/ sound, that letter is capitalized (and
repeated after the initial «Mc»), e.g. «McCarti, McKee, McQueen»
‹McCarty...›. If any other syllable is stressed, Lytspel recommend
writing the word regularly without inner capitalization, e.g.
«Makintosh» ‹Macintosh *or* McIntosh›.
## English as an International Language
As an international language, English is currently written and spoken quite
differently in various parts of the world.
On the one hand, by using a phonetic spelling, Lytspel eliminates most
differences that traditionally exist between written British (BE) and
American English (AE), e.g. «culer, senter, orgenys, anelys, lycenss,
catalog, aijing, program, chek, gray» ‹colour/color, centre/center,
organise/organize, analyse/analyze, licence/license, catalog/catalogue,
ageing/aging, program/programme, cheque/check, grey/gray›.
On the other hand, tailoring Lytspel to faithfully represent just one
regional variety would cause many deviations from the alphabetic principle
for everyone else. And creating different variants of Lytspel each fitting
just one regional variety would introduce even larger differences between
different regional varieties of written English than traditionally exist
between BE and AE.
Instead of going down either of theses routes, Lytspel had been designed as
some kind of "global compromise." It aims to keep the phonetic principle
reasonably intact for all varieties of spoken English, and particularly for
RP (since the English language originates in England) and GA (since the
United States are the country with the highest number of native English
speakers).
Various details of the Lytspel spellings have already been motivated above
as representing sound distinctions that exist either in RP or in GA, and
the «ue» and «uer» spellings are a compromise used in words spoken
differently in RP and GA. But such compromises are not almost possible
without making the written language extremely complex and unwieldy. In
other cases, Lytspel therefore resolves differences between RP and GA by
preferring the spelling that keeps the written language more similar to
tradspell:
* «a» is used if one variety speaks /a/ and the other /A/, e.g. «last»
* «o» is used if one variety speaks /Q/ and the other /O:/, e.g. «cloth»
* «o» is also used if one variety speaks /Q/ and the other /V/, e.g.
«from»
XXX Describe additional compromise decisions, e.g.
* The one that's more similar to the traditionel spelling is preferred.
* A short vowel such as /@, E, I/ is preferred over a long one such as
/aI, i:/.
* If one variety speaks /Vr/ and the other /3:/, «urr» is used if the
traditional spelling includes ‹rr› (e.g. «current»), otherwise «ur» is
used (e.g. «curij» ‹courage›)?
* «er» is used if RP has /@/ and GA has /y@`/, e.g. «figer» ‹figure›?
* Document that stress marker--free variant is preferred in doubt, e.g.
«adult» rather than «*a'dult», «to dictait» ‹to dictate› rather than
«to *dic'tate», «sabetaazh» ‹sabotage› rather than «*sabo'taazh».
Cf. [American and British English pronunciation
differences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_English_pronunciation_differences)
and [Different spellings for different
pronunciations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_English_spelling_differences#Different_spellings_for_different_pronunciations).
## Limitations of the Current Dictionary
The Lytspel dictionary, as currently published, can distinguish between
words traditionally written the same but pronounced differently
(heteronyms) as long as their grammatical role in a sentence is different
-- one is a noun, while the other is a verb, for example. This allows
distinguishing the verb «cloas» ‹close› from the adjective «cloass», the
noun «object» from the verb «ob'ject», etc. («Dhay wur tu cloass to dhe
doar to cloas it.» ‹They were too close to the door to close it.› / «Y did
not ob'ject to dhe object.» ‹I did not object to the object.›)
However, heteronyms are currently only disambiguated by their grammatical
role (commonly known as *part of speech,* or *POS*), hence if two
heteronyms share the same grammatical role, the dictionary will list only
one of them. The other one should, of course, nevertheless be used when
appropriate. Words where this is the case include (the missing spelling is
listed in parentheses):
* ‹bass›: «baiss» (or «bass» for various fish species)
* ‹drawer›: «dror» (or «drawer» for a person who draws)
* ‹micrometer›: «my'cromiter» (a measuring device; or «mycromeeter» for the
millionth part of a meter)
* ‹prayer›: «prair» (or «prayer» for a person who prays)
* ‹read›: «reed» (or «red» for the past tense)
* ‹subsequence›: «subsiquenss» (for some subsequent occurrence; or
«subseequenss» for a sequence derived from another sequence)
* ‹taxis›: «taxies» (multiple taxis, or taxicabs; or «taxiss», a scientific
term)
* ‹tier›: «teer» (or «tyer» for a a person who ties)
## Overview
TODO This section is older and partially outdated.
This phoneng program suite (short for: Phonetic English) shows how English
is pronounced and offers an alternative spelling system that is more
consistent and easier to learn and use than the traditional spelling.
TODO These programs aren't implemented yet.
The `pronounce` command shows how English texts are pronounced. The
`lytspel` command converts them into a simplified spelling.
The provided tools can also be used to implement your own spelling reform
proposals or to adapt the chosen respellings as needed.
## Installation
The phoneng program suite is written in
[Haskell](https://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/Haskell). To build it from
source, you need the [Cabal](https://www.haskell.org/cabal/) build system.
If you use a Debian-based system, install the `cabal-install` package to
get it.
Afterwards clone this repository from GitHub and run the following commands
in the main directory:
cabal configure && cabal build && cabal install
The compiled programs should now be in your path and ready to run.
## Usage
TODO document
## Files and File Formats
All files are in UTF-8 format (some of them may use just the ASCII subset).
*Line files* (extension: .txt) have one entry per line; line breaks in entries
are therefore not allowed.
*Key-value files* (extension: .txt) are line files where each line represents
a key/value pair. Keys and values are separated by ':'; trailing comments
introduced by '#' are stripped. No escape syntax is supported, hence keys
cannot contain ':', values cannot contain '#', and neither can contain line
breaks.
### Files in data Directory
TODO Update this section.
* `cmudict-phonemes.txt`: key-value file containing a mapping from the
phonemes used in cmudict to the corresponding Phonetic English
phonemes. Used by the `dictbuilder` program.
* `custom.csv`: CSV file listing those words for which a specific
pronunciation should be used. The case of the words listed in the
first field is ignored. The second field may contain the following
values:
* B: use British (RP) pronunciation
* A: use American (GA) pronunciation
* P: use the PhonEng pronunciation
* D: don't add the word to the output dictionary (used for rare
foreign words or names)
* O: leave the spelling of the word unchanged
* Alternatively, a custom pronunciation may be given which is then
used to generate the final spelling
Manually created file; used by `lytspelify`.
* `moby-phonemes.txt`: key-value file containing a mapping from the phonemes
used in Moby to the corresponding Phonetic English phonemes. Used by the
`dictbuilder` program.
* `words-not-in-scowl.txt`: Line file containing words that aren't listed in
SCOWL but should become part of the pronunciation dictionary. Used by the
`dictbuilder` program.
* `phonetic-dict.txt`: Line file containing a mapping from words to their
pronunciations. If there is just a single pronunciations, the entry is
written as `word: pron`. If the pronunciation of a word depends on which
POS (part-of-speed) it is, it is written as `word/n: pron1; v: pron2`
(where "n", "v" etc. are POS tags). Redirects are written as `word:>
target`, e.g. `colour:> color`. Generated by the `dictbuilder` program.
## History: Steps used to Generate the Phonetic Dictionary
Some of the following steps require manual intervention. They are described
here to document the history of phoneng.
Downloaded and installed knowledge sources:
* Downloaded SCOWL and VarCon from [SCOWL And
Friends](http://wordlist.aspell.net/) -- version 2014.08.11 was used to
create the distributed dictionary. Unzipped both of them within the `data`
directory and renamed the resulting subdirectories to `scowl` and `varcon`.
* Downloaded the [CMU Pronouncing
Dictionary](http://www.speech.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/cmudict) -- version 0.7a
was used to create the distributed dictionary. It's enough to download the
file `cmudict.0.7a` and store it in a new `data` subdirectory named
`cmudict`.
* Downloaded the [Moby Pronunciation List by Grady
Ward](http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3205). Created a `data` subdirectory
named `moby` and unzipped it there.
Then run `make` from within the `data` directory, that should handle the
rest. TODO Document PATH requirements.
TODO Or execute the following commands manually (the rest of this section
is outdated and should be deleted or possibly cleaned up):
Invoked the `dictbuilder` program within the `data` directory. This writes
a file called `phonetic-dict.txt`.
Invoked the `csvdict` script. This writes a file called
`phoneng-espeak-dict.csv`.
Invoked the `mergeprons` script. This writes a file called `phonetic-dict.csv`.
Invoked the `lytspelify` script. This writes a file called `lytspel-dict.csv`.
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