pasp-plp 0.0.2.post1

Probabilistic Answer Set Programming

PASP - Probabilistic Answer Set Programming

Prototype implementation for probabilistic ASP [1][2]. Example probabilistic logic programs may be found in examples/. See full API documentation here. Let's take a look at some examples to show how to do inference with this package.

Examples

Let's first take a look at the popular asia Bayesian network, here encoded as the probabilistic logic program examples/asia.lp in a ProbLog inspired syntax.

0.01::trip. 0.5::smoking.
0.05::tuberculosis :- trip.
0.01::tuberculosis :- not trip.
0.1::cancer :- smoking.
0.01::cancer :- not smoking.
or :- tuberculosis. or :- cancer.
0.98::test :- or.
0.05::test :- not or.

The code below specifies the probabilities and the rules of our domain. Any fact can be preceded by a probability p followed by double colons :: (e.g., 0.01::trip and 0.5::smoking), meaning that this fact may appear in the logic program with probability p and not appear with probability 1-p; we call these probabilistic facts. If no probability is given, then the fact must always appear.

Besides facts, we also have rules. These are of the form head :- body, implications stating that head will be proven true if body is provably true. For now, head must either be empty (an integrity constraint) or a single atom. On the other hand, body may contain multiple atoms, called subgoals. Similar to facts, we may have some probability coupled with rules, in which case we call them probabilistic rules. Probabilistic rules follow the same syntax as probabilistic facts; in fact, they are only syntax sugar, as the package unrolls them as a rule with a unique probabilistic fact as one of its subgoals.

% The following probabilistic rule
0.05::tuberculosis :- trip.

% is equivalent to
0.05::a.
tuberculosis :- trip, a.

% where a is a unique atom.

pasp also supports probabilistic rules with variables (e.g. 0.3::f(X) :- g(X).), although these are (for now) constrained to only normal rules. Internally, what pasp does is ground these rules and then apply the transformation mentioned above, adding a probabilistic fact to the body of the grounded rule. For efficiency reasons, subgoals in first-order probabilistic rules are only grounded following the non-probabilistic part of the program; otherwise, at every total choice a new grounded program would have to be generated.

Let's take a look at the remaining lines in examples/asia.lp. To query for probabilities, we use a similar syntax to PASOCS.

#query(trip)
#query(tuberculosis | trip)
#query(cancer | smoking)
#query(test | or)
#query(smoking)
#query(tuberculosis | not trip)
#query(cancer | not smoking)
#query(test | not or)

The lines above ask for the probabilities of atoms. For instance, #query(trip) is asking for the probability that trip is provably true $\mathbb{P}(\texttt{trip})$, while #query(tuberculosis | not trip) is asking for the probability of tuberculosis being provably true given that we know trip not to be $\mathbb{P}(\texttt{tuberculosis}|\neg\texttt{trip})$. We may ask more complex queries by aggregating atoms with a comma; for instance #query(tuberculosis, not cancer | not smoking, trip) asks the probability $\mathbb{P}(\texttt{tuberculosis},\neg\texttt{cancer}|\neg\texttt{smoking},\texttt{trip})$.

If we are working with the credal semantics (more on this later), then each one of these queries will return a tuple of lower and upper probabilities. Let's ask the package to provide these probabilities (for the command-line syntax of pasp, see Usage. We first inspect our Probabilistic Logic Program (PLP).

>>> import pasp
>>> P = pasp.parse("examples/asia.lp")
>>> print(P)

<Logic Program:
tuberculosis :- trip, __unique_id_4.
tuberculosis :- not trip, __unique_id_5.
cancer :- smoking, __unique_id_6.
cancer :- not smoking, __unique_id_7.
or :- tuberculosis.
or :- cancer.
test :- or, __unique_id_8.
test :- not or, __unique_id_9.,
Probabilistic Facts:
[0.01::trip, 0.5::smoking, 0.05::__unique_id_4, 0.01::__unique_id_5, 0.1::__unique_id_6, 0.01::__unique_id_7, 0.98::__unique_id_8, 0.05::__unique_id_9],
Credal Facts:
[]
Probabilistic Rules:
[0.05::tuberculosis :- trip, 0.01::tuberculosis :- not trip, 0.1::cancer :- smoking, 0.01::cancer :- not smoking, 0.98::test :- or, 0.05::test :- not or],
Queries
[ℙ(trip), ℙ(tuberculosis | trip), ℙ(cancer | smoking), ℙ(test | or), ℙ(smoking), ℙ(tuberculosis | not trip), ℙ(cancer | not smoking), ℙ(test | not or)]>

A PLP, here the Python object P, is a tuple $\langle L,PF,CF,PR,Q \rangle$, where $L$ is the logic program composed solely of logic facts and rules, $PF$ are the probabilistic facts, $CF$ are the credal facts (see examples/prisoners.lp), $PR$ are probabilistic rules, $and $Q$ are the queries to be asked from the solver. We can see from the output above the generated rules and probabilistic facts produced by the unrolling of probabilistic rules as well as the queries to be asked.

Let's ask the solver to produce the exact probabilities we asked. We can do so by running the exact function. Note that running exact inference is costly. Approximate inference is planned for this package.

>>> R = pasp.exact(P)

ℙ(trip) = [0.010000, 0.010000]
ℙ(tuberculosis | trip) = [0.050000, 0.050000]
ℙ(cancer | smoking) = [0.100000, 0.100000]
ℙ(test | or) = [0.980000, 0.980000]
ℙ(smoking) = [0.500000, 0.500000]
ℙ(tuberculosis | not trip) = [0.010000, 0.010000]
ℙ(cancer | not smoking) = [0.010000, 0.010000]
ℙ(test | not or) = [0.050000, 0.050000]

Function pasp.exact returns the results of the queries as a tuple of pairs of lower and upper probabilities in the order the queries are asked for in the PLP code.

Since examples/asia.lp comes from a Bayesian network and therefore is an acyclic PLP, the probabilities returned are sharp. Let's take a look at another (very simple) example where this is not the case: examples/insomnia.lp.

sleep :- not work, not insomnia. work :- not sleep.
0.3::insomnia.

#query(insomnia)
#query(work)
#query(sleep)
#query(not sleep)
#query(not work)

Note that sleep and work produce an even loop when insomnia is set to false in the program, essentially resulting in two possible stable models: one where only work is set to true and the other where only sleep is true, each having different sets of probabilities. Let's query!

>>> pasp.exact(pasp.parse("examples/insomnia.lp"))

ℙ(insomnia) = [0.300000, 0.300000]
ℙ(work) = [0.300000, 1.000000]
ℙ(sleep) = [0.000000, 0.700000]
ℙ(not sleep) = [0.300000, 1.000000]
ℙ(not work) = [0.000000, 0.700000]

We now have the right lower and upper probabilities taking into account all possible stable models of the PLP. This shows us that the probability of sleep, for instance, can take values low as 0.0 and high as 0.7, while work has at least 0.3 mass.

Semantics

Probabilities and models may change depending on the semantics of the language. The semantics of the language can be defined around two dimensions: the logic semantics and the probabilistic semantics. We allow different logic and probabilistic semantics, and their different combinations, in pasp. As of now, the following semantics are implemented:

Logic semantics

• Stable semantics;
• Partial semantics;
• L-Stable semantics.

Probabilistic semantics

• Credal semantics;
• MaxEnt semantics.

Examples of logic semantics

Let us first examine the Barber Paradox example (see examples/barber.lp).

shaves(X, Y) :- barber(X), villager(Y), not shaves(Y, Y).
villager(a). barber(b). 0.5::villager(b).

Under the stable semantics, we find ourselves in a pickle. With probability half, villager(b) is chosen (or not) to appear in the program. Suppose it does not; then we know that when grounding the program we get

shaves(b, a) :- barber(b), villager(a), not shaves(a, a).

which is fine, since shaves(a, a) is not in any model. Now suppose villager(b) is, in fact, added to the program; then we have

shaves(b, b) :- barber(b), villager(b), not shaves(b, b).

in addition to the previous rule. This presents a problem, since shaves(b, b) :- ..., not shaves(b, b) is a clear contradiction and so no stable model can be found in this total choice under the stable model semantics. Since the credal semantics assumes the existence of a model for any given total choice, the computed probabilities will be garbage (for now, ignore the undef keyword):

>>> P = pasp.parse("examples/barber.lp")
>>> pasp.exact(P)

ℙ(shaves(b,a)) = [1.000000, 0.500000]
ℙ(not shaves(b,b)) = [1.000000, 0.500000]
ℙ(undef shaves(b,b)) = [0.500000, 0.000000]

Instead of using the stable semantics, however, we could use the partial semantics. The partial semantics attributes to every atom three possible values: true, false or undefined (represented by the undef keyword). Atoms are set to undefined when its value could not be proved either true or false, as is the case of contradictions.

Let us, again, analyze the Barber Paradox program, this time under the partial semantics. When villager(b). is not in the program, then the partial semantics computes, in this case, the same minimal model as in the stable semantics. However, when villager(b) is present in the program, then we cannot attribute neither truth nor falsity to shaves(b, b), and thus shaves(b, b) must be set to undefined. Now, if we compute the credal probabilities again, this time under partial semantics, we get

>>> P = pasp.parse("examples/barber.lp", semantics = "partial")
>>> pasp.exact(P)

ℙ(shaves(b,a)) = [1.000000, 1.000000]
ℙ(not shaves(b,b)) = [0.500000, 0.500000]
ℙ(undef shaves(b,b)) = [0.500000, 0.500000]

which are correct: in both total choices, there is only a single model; the one with villager(b) agrees with not shaves(b, b), and the other (without villager(b)) sets it to undefined, meaning that shaves(b, b) is either set to false or undefined with equal probability.

Another interesting semantic is the L-stable semantics, which in practice agrees with the stable model semantics when there exist stable models and with the partial semantics otherwise. Let us take a look at the 3-coloring graph problem (see examples/3coloring.lp).

#const n = 5.
v(1..n).
0.5::e(X, Y) :- v(X), v(Y), X < Y.
e(X, Y) :- e(Y, X).
c(X, r) :- not c(X, g), not c(X, b), v(X).
c(X, g) :- not c(X, r), not c(X, b), v(X).
c(X, b) :- not c(X, r), not c(X, g), v(X).
f :- not f, e(X, Y), c(X, Z), c(Y, Z).

The program above models the 3-coloring problem of graphs with n = 5 vertices. Each total choice models a different graph based on the presence (or not) of edges e(X, Y). Here, the rule

f :- not f, e(X, Y), c(X, Z), c(Y, Z).

defines whether or not the graph is 3-colorable. Notice the presence of contradiction f :- not f, .... When no 3-coloring can be achieved, then f must be set to undef, as the subgoals would then hold and thus cause the contradiction. Under the partial semantics, any minimal partial model is valid, and thus, even if we do find a 3-colorable graph under a total choice, other partial models with undef attributions would possibly appear as potential minimal models.

>>> P = pasp.parse("examples/3coloring.lp", semantics = "partial")
>>> pasp.exact(P)

ℙ(c(1,r)) = [0.000000, 1.000000]
ℙ(e(1,2) | undef f) = [0.090747, 0.971537]
ℙ(undef f) = [0.064453, 0.999023]

Now, if we choose the L-stable semantics

>>> P = pasp.parse("examples/3coloring.lp", semantics = "lstable")
>>> pasp.exact(P)

ℙ(c(1,r)) = [0.000000, 1.000000]
ℙ(e(1,2) | undef f) = [0.772727, 0.772727]
ℙ(undef f) = [0.064453, 0.064453]

we find that the probability of getting non-3-colorable graphs drastically falls, as we discard minimal models with undef when stable models are found.

Examples of probabilistic semantics

Consider the game example shown in examples/game.lp.

wins(X) :- move(X, Y), not wins(Y).
move(a, b). move(b, a). move(b, c). 0.3::move(c, d).

If we were to use the credal semantic, we would find that wins(b) appears in two of the stable models (one when move(c, d) is in the program, and the other when it is not), and so by computing the total choice probabilities, it either appears with probability 1.0-0.3 or 1.0, producing the credal result [0.7, 1.0] below.

>>> P = pasp.parse("examples/game.lp")
>>> pasp.exact(P)

ℙ(wins(b)) = [0.700000, 1.000000]
ℙ(wins(c)) = [0.300000, 0.300000]

When querying under the credal semantics, we account for the lower and upper probabilities of each total choice and evaluate the final credal probabilities accordingly. If we wish to, instead, uniformly consider models, we might do so by using the MaxEnt semantics [3].

>>> P = pasp.parse("examples/game.lp")
>>> pasp.exact(P, psemantics = "maxent")

ℙ(wins(b)) = [0.850000, 0.850000]
ℙ(wins(c)) = [0.300000, 0.300000]

Installation and requirements

pasp requires Python version 3.10 or newer to work and needs access to clingo's C API. Some Linux distribution packages for clingo do not expose headers or are outdated. Here are some packages we know work with pasp.

Ubuntu PPA

clingo and libclingo-dev:

sudo add-apt-repository ppa:potassco/stable
sudo apt update
sudo apt-get install clingo libclingo-dev

Mac OS X

Homebrew clingo:

brew install clingo

You may need to append Homebrew to your paths if you have not done so yet:

# Assuming your brew dir is "${HOME}/.brew"
export LIBRARY_PATH="${LIBRARY_PATH}:$(brew --prefix)/lib"
export LD_LIBRARY_PATH="${LD_LIBRARY_PATH}:$(brew --prefix)/lib"
export C_INCLUDE_PATH="${C_INCLUDE_PATH}:$(brew --prefix)/include"

Installation

pasp is available from the PyPi repository as pasp-plp. For Arch Linux users, see the python-pasp package below.

pip install pasp-plp

Import the package normally

>>> import pasp

to have access to the exported symbols of the package.

Arch Linux AUR

The python-pasp package is available for Arch Linux users (replace yay with your AUR helper or manually install with makepkg):

yay -S python-pasp

This installs pasp and all its dependencies.

Manual installation

Alternatively, you may locally build pasp. To do so, clone this repository to a directory of your choice, say pasp/. The package is written in Python, with the more critical parts written as C extensions. The only dependency from the C-side of pasp is clingo, while the only dependencies from the Python side are the clingo Python API and lark. Change your working directory to pasp/ and then compile and install the C parts with the following command:

python setup.py build
python setup.py install

Command-line usage

pasp is also available as a command:

% Prints the help message.
pasp --help

% Runs the prisoners example with credal inference and stable semantics.
pasp examples/prisoners.lp

ℙ(e1 | u) = [0.290426, 0.379192]
ℙ(e1 | not b, u) = [0.450125, 0.549875]
ℙ(g | e1, u) = [0.000000, 1.000000]
ℙ(d) = [0.000000, 1.000000]
ℙ(e1 | g, u) = [0.000000, 0.549875]
ℙ(e1 | ga, u) = [0.279971, 0.390743]

% Runs the 3-coloring example with credal inference and L-stable semantics.
pasp --sem=lstable examples/3coloring.lp

ℙ(c(1,r)) = [0.000000, 1.000000]
ℙ(e(1,2) | undef f) = [0.772727, 0.772727]
ℙ(undef f) = [0.064453, 0.064453]

% Runs the insomnia example with Max-Entropy inference and stable semantics.
pasp --psem=maxent examples/insomnia.lp

ℙ(insomnia) = [0.300000, 0.300000]
ℙ(work) = [0.650000, 0.650000]
ℙ(sleep) = [0.350000, 0.350000]
ℙ(not sleep) = [0.650000, 0.650000]
ℙ(not work) = [0.350000, 0.350000]

References

[1] - The Joy of Probabilistic Answer Set Programming: Semantics, Complexity, Expressivity, Inference. Fabio Gagliardi Cozman and Denis Deratani Mauá. In International Journal of Approximate Reasoning 125. 2020.

[2] - On the Semantics and Complexity of Probabilistic Logic Programs. Fabio Gagliardi Cozman and Denis Deratani Mauá. In Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research 60. 2017.

[3] - Probabilistic Reasoning with Answer Sets. Chitta Baral, Michael Gelfond and Nelson Rushton. In International Conference on Logic Programming and Nonmonotonic Reasoning. 2004.