coreLearn 0.1.1

Basic ML algorithms library built from scratch (KNN + Linear Regression)

CoreLearn

A lightweight Python machine learning library built from scratch using only NumPy.
Implements KNN classification and Linear Regression.

---

Installation

# Download the project using pip:
pip install coreLearn 

After installation, import from anywhere:

from coreLearn import KNNClassifier, LinearRegression, Evaluator

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Quick Start

from coreLearn import KNNClassifier, LinearRegression, Evaluator, accuracy, mae

# --- KNN Classification ---
knn = KNNClassifier(k=5, distance="euclidean", n_jobs=2)
knn.fit(X_train, y_train)
predictions = knn.predict(X_test)
print(accuracy(y_test, predictions))

# --- Linear Regression ---
lr = LinearRegression(strategy="normal")
lr.fit(X_train, y_train)
predictions = lr.predict(X_test)
print(mae(y_test, predictions))

# --- Evaluator ---
print(Evaluator.evaluate_regression(y_test, predictions))
# {'mae': ..., 'mse': ..., 'rmse': ...}

print(Evaluator.evaluate_classification(y_test, knn_preds))
# {'accuracy': ..., 'precision': ..., 'recall': ..., 'f1': ...}

---

Package Structure

coreLearn/
├── __init__.py          ← Public API
├── base.py              ← Abstract base class — Template Method Pattern
├── distances.py         ← Distance metrics — Factory Pattern
├── knn.py               ← KNN Classifier — Recursion + Concurrency + OOP
├── linear_regression.py ← Linear Regression — Strategy Pattern + OOP
├── evaluator.py         ← Metric engine — Functional Programming
├── examples/
│   ├── demo_notebook.ipynb
│   ├── housing.csv
│   └── penguin.csv
└── tests/
    ├── test_knn.py
    ├── test_linear_regression.py
    ├── test_distances.py
    └── test_evaluator.py

---

Running Tests

cd coreLearn/
pytest coreLearn/tests/ -v

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Learning Outcomes

1 — Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

File: base.py, knn.py, linear_regression.py, distances.py

Abstract Base Class & Inheritance

BaseModel is an abstract class that defines the contract every model must follow.
KNNClassifier and LinearRegression both inherit from it:

# base.py
class BaseModel(ABC):
    @abstractmethod
    def fit(self, X, y) -> "BaseModel": ...

    @abstractmethod
    def predict(self, X) -> list: ...

# knn.py
class KNNClassifier(BaseModel):   # ← inheritance
    def fit(self, X, y): ...
    def predict(self, X): ...

# linear_regression.py
class LinearRegression(BaseModel):  # ← inheritance
    def fit(self, X, y): ...
    def predict(self, X): ...

Polymorphism

Both models share the same interface — they can be used interchangeably:

for model in [KNNClassifier(k=3), LinearRegression()]:
    model.fit(X_train, y_train)   # same call, different behaviour
    model.predict(X_test)         # same call, different behaviour

Encapsulation

Internal state is hidden with _ prefixes. Users interact only through the public API:

# knn.py
self._metric = DistanceMetricFactory.create(distance)  # private
self._tree   = None                                     # private

# linear_regression.py — controlled read access via properties
@property
def coef_(self) -> np.ndarray:
    return self._weights[1:]

@property
def intercept_(self) -> float:
    return float(self._weights[0])

OptimizationStrategy, NormalEquationStrategy, and GradientDescentStrategy inside
linear_regression.py form an additional hierarchy demonstrating inheritance within the library.

---

2 — Functional Programming

File: evaluator.py

Functions as First-Class Objects

Metric functions are stored in dictionaries as values and called dynamically:

# evaluator.py
_regression_metrics: dict[str, callable] = {
    "mae":  mae,
    "mse":  mse,
    "rmse": rmse,
}

@classmethod
def evaluate_regression(cls, y_true, y_pred) -> dict:
    # applies every registered function — no if/elif chain
    return {name: fn(y_true, y_pred) for name, fn in cls._regression_metrics.items()}

Higher-Order Function — register()

Evaluator.register() accepts any callable and plugs it in at runtime.
This is the classic higher-order function pattern: a function (or method) that takes another function as an argument.

# Add a custom metric without modifying the Evaluator class
Evaluator.register(
    "max_error",
    lambda y_true, y_pred: max(abs(a - b) for a, b in zip(y_true, y_pred)),
    kind="regression",
)
result = Evaluator.evaluate_regression(y_test, y_pred)
print(result["max_error"])   # available immediately

Pure Functions

mae, mse, rmse, accuracy, precision, recall, f1_score are all pure functions:

• No side effects
• No mutation of inputs
• Same inputs always produce the same output

from coreLearn import mae, accuracy
mae([1.0, 2.0, 3.0], [1.5, 2.5, 3.5])   # → 0.5  (always)
accuracy([0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0])           # → 0.666 (always)

---

3 — Concurrency

File: knn.py — KNNClassifier.predict()

KNNClassifier uses ProcessPoolExecutor to classify test samples in parallel across
multiple CPU processes. Unlike threads, each worker runs in its own process with its
own GIL — enabling true CPU-bound parallelism.

# knn.py
def predict(self, X) -> list:
    ...
    if self.n_jobs == 1:
        # sequential — no overhead for small datasets
        return [self._predict_one(x) for x in samples]

    # parallel — distribute samples across n_jobs worker processes
    args = [(self._tree, x, self.k, self._metric) for x in samples]
    with ProcessPoolExecutor(max_workers=self.n_jobs) as executor:
        return list(executor.map(_predict_worker, args))

# n_jobs=1  → sequential (default, safe for notebooks)
knn = KNNClassifier(k=5, n_jobs=1)

# n_jobs=4  → 4 parallel worker processes
knn = KNNClassifier(k=5, n_jobs=4)
knn.fit(X_train, y_train)
preds = knn.predict(X_test)

Note: ProcessPoolExecutor requires the if __name__ == "__main__": guard on
Windows/macOS when used in scripts. The n_jobs=1 default is safe everywhere.

---

4 — Recursion

File: knn.py — KDTree

The KD-Tree data structure is built and searched using mutual recursion.
Both _build and _search call themselves with a strictly smaller subproblem each time.

_build — Recursive Tree Construction

Base case: empty data → return None.
Recursive case: split on the median, call _build on each half with depth + 1.

# knn.py
def _build(self, data: list, depth: int):
    if not data:          # ← base case
        return None
    axis = depth % len(data[0][0])
    data.sort(key=lambda item: item[0][axis])
    mid = len(data) // 2
    return KDNode(
        point = data[mid][0],
        label = data[mid][1],
        left  = self._build(data[:mid],     depth + 1),  # ← recursion
        right = self._build(data[mid + 1:], depth + 1),  # ← recursion
    )

_search — Recursive Nearest-Neighbour Search

Base case: node is None → return.
Recursive case: visit the near branch, then prune and optionally visit the far branch.

# knn.py
def _search(self, node, target, k, metric, depth, best):
    if node is None:      # ← base case
        return
    dist = metric(target, node.point)
    # update best list ...
    self._search(near, target, k, metric, depth + 1, best)  # ← recursion
    if len(best) < k or abs(diff) < best[-1][0]:
        self._search(far, target, k, metric, depth + 1, best)  # ← recursion (pruned)

Pruning: the abs(diff) < best[-1][0] condition skips the far branch when it cannot
contain a closer neighbour — achieving O(log n) average search complexity.

---

5 — SOLID Principles

Files: all modules

S — Single Responsibility

Every class has exactly one reason to change:

Class	Sole Responsibility
BaseModel	Define the common model contract
KDTree	Spatial nearest-neighbour search
KNNClassifier	KNN classification logic
LinearRegression	Linear regression logic
NormalEquationStrategy	Closed-form weight computation
GradientDescentStrategy	Iterative gradient-based weight computation
DistanceMetricFactory	Instantiate distance metric objects by name
Evaluator	Compute and manage evaluation metrics

O — Open/Closed

Classes are open for extension, closed for modification.
New metrics and distance functions can be added without editing any existing class:

# Add a new metric — Evaluator source code untouched
Evaluator.register("r2", lambda t, p: ..., kind="regression")

# Add a new distance — KNNClassifier source code untouched
DistanceMetricFactory.register("chebyshev", ChebyshevDistance)
knn = KNNClassifier(k=3, distance="chebyshev")

L — Liskov Substitution

Any BaseModel subclass can replace BaseModel without breaking callers:

def train_and_score(model: BaseModel, X_train, y_train, X_test, y_test):
    preds = model.fit_predict(X_train, y_train, X_test)
    return accuracy(y_test, preds)

train_and_score(KNNClassifier(k=3), ...)   # works
train_and_score(LinearRegression(), ...)   # works

I — Interface Segregation

DistanceMetric exposes only what is needed — a single compute() method.
Implementors are not forced to implement anything they do not use:

# distances.py
class DistanceMetric(ABC):
    @abstractmethod
    def compute(self, a: list, b: list) -> float: ...
    # nothing else required

D — Dependency Inversion

LinearRegression depends on the abstraction OptimizationStrategy,
not on any concrete strategy class:

# linear_regression.py
self._weights = self._strategy.fit(X_b, y)
#               ↑ OptimizationStrategy interface — concrete class unknown here

---

6 — Architectural & Design Patterns

• Core layer (base.py, distances.py): abstractions and shared contracts
• Algorithm layer (knn.py, linear_regression.py): concrete ML algorithms
• Evaluation layer (evaluator.py): metric computation
• Public API (__init__.py): single entry point, re-exports everything

Pattern 1 — Template Method (base.py)

fit_predict defines the fixed skeleton (fit → predict).
Subclasses fill in each step without altering the sequence:

# base.py
def fit_predict(self, X_train, y_train, X_test) -> list:
    self.fit(X_train, y_train)   # ← step 1: implemented by subclass
    return self.predict(X_test)  # ← step 2: implemented by subclass

Every model gets fit_predict for free through inheritance.

Pattern 2 — Strategy (linear_regression.py)

The optimisation algorithm is swapped at construction time.
LinearRegression.fit() never knows which concrete strategy it is using:

lr_ne = LinearRegression(strategy="normal")           # uses NormalEquationStrategy
lr_gd = LinearRegression(strategy="gradient_descent") # uses GradientDescentStrategy

# Both models have the same interface — caller code is identical
lr_ne.fit(X_train, y_train)
lr_gd.fit(X_train, y_train)

To add a third optimiser (e.g. Adam), only a new OptimizationStrategy subclass is needed.

Pattern 3 — Factory (distances.py)

DistanceMetricFactory centralises object creation.
KNNClassifier never imports EuclideanDistance or ManhattanDistance directly:

# distances.py
class DistanceMetricFactory:
    _registry = {"euclidean": EuclideanDistance, "manhattan": ManhattanDistance}

    @classmethod
    def create(cls, name: str) -> DistanceMetric:
        return cls._registry[name]()   # create and return

    @classmethod
    def register(cls, name: str, metric_class: type) -> None:
        cls._registry[name] = metric_class  # extend without modifying

# knn.py — only depends on the factory, not the concrete classes
self._metric = DistanceMetricFactory.create(distance)

---

API Reference

KNNClassifier

Parameter	Type	Default	Description
k	int	5	Number of neighbours
distance	str	"euclidean"	"euclidean" or "manhattan" (or any registered name)
n_jobs	int	1	Worker processes for prediction (1 = sequential)

LinearRegression

Parameter	Type	Default	Description
strategy	str	"normal"	"normal" (closed-form) or "gradient_descent"
learning_rate	float	0.01	Learning rate — gradient descent only
epochs	int	1000	Iterations — gradient descent only

Evaluator

Method	Description
evaluate_regression(y_true, y_pred)	Returns {"mae", "mse", "rmse"}
evaluate_classification(y_true, y_pred)	Returns {"accuracy", "precision", "recall", "f1"}
register(name, fn, kind)	Add a custom metric at runtime

Standalone metric functions

from coreLearn import accuracy, mae, mse, rmse, precision, recall, f1_score

---

Dependencies

Package	Purpose
numpy	Matrix operations, vectorised arithmetic
pytest	Unit testing
scikit-learn	Datasets and preprocessing in examples only
pandas	Data loading in examples only
matplotlib	Visualisation in examples only