polars-seq 0.1.1

Polars expression plugin for translating DNA/RNA to protein, bit-for-bit compatible with BioPython's Seq.translate()

polars-seq

Translate DNA/RNA to protein inside Polars, at Rust speed, with exactly the semantics of BioPython's Seq.translate().

import polars as pl
import polars_seq  # noqa: F401 -- importing registers the .seq namespace

df = pl.DataFrame({"dna": ["ATGAAATTTTAA", "ATGGGCCCCTGA"]})

df.with_columns(protein=pl.col("dna").seq.translate())
# ┌──────────────┬─────────┐
# │ dna          ┆ protein │
# ╞══════════════╪═════════╡
# │ ATGAAATTTTAA ┆ MKF*    │
# │ ATGGGCCCCTGA ┆ MGP*    │
# └──────────────┴─────────┘

It is a native Polars expression plugin (Rust, via pyo3-polars), not a Python UDF: it runs inside the query engine, parallelises across threads, holds no GIL, and composes with the lazy optimiser and the streaming engine.

---

Install

uv add polars-seq

or

pip install polars-seq

That's it. Pre-built wheels are published for Linux (x86_64, aarch64), macOS (Intel and Apple Silicon) and Windows (x64), so you do not need Rust — it only gets compiled if you are on a platform without a wheel, or you are building from source.

Requires Python ≥ 3.10 and polars ≥ 1.0. The extension is built against the stable ABI (abi3), so one wheel serves 3.10 through 3.14 and beyond.

Check it works:

uv run --with polars-seq --with polars python -c "
import polars as pl, polars_seq
print(pl.DataFrame({'dna': ['ATGAAATTTTAA']}).with_columns(p=pl.col('dna').seq.translate()))
"

---

Building from source (uv)

Only needed if you want to hack on it. You will need a Rust toolchain.

1. Prerequisites

uv — if you don't have it:

curl -LsSf https://astral.sh/uv/install.sh | sh

Rust — rustup gives you cargo and rustc. The stable channel is pinned in rust-toolchain.toml, so rustup will fetch the right one automatically:

curl --proto '=https' --tlsv1.2 -sSf https://sh.rustup.rs | sh -s -- -y
source "$HOME/.cargo/env"     # or restart your shell
cargo --version               # should print something

You also need a C linker (cc). On Debian/Ubuntu: sudo apt install build-essential.

2. Build and install

git clone https://github.com/drchristhorpe/polars-seq
cd polars-seq

uv sync          # creates .venv on Python 3.14, compiles the Rust extension, installs everything

uv sync reads .python-version (3.14) and pyproject.toml, downloads the interpreter if you don't have it, builds the crate through the maturin backend, and installs polars-seq into .venv along with the dev dependencies (pytest, biopython).

The first build compiles all of polars's Rust dependencies and takes a few minutes. Later builds are incremental and take seconds.

Check it works:

uv run python -c "
import polars as pl, polars_seq
print(pl.DataFrame({'dna': ['ATGAAATTTTAA']}).with_columns(p=pl.col('dna').seq.translate()))
"

Run the tests (this is also the BioPython parity check):

uv run pytest -q

3. Rebuilding after you change the Rust

This is the one thing that will bite you. uv sync caches the built wheel and does not notice that you edited src/*.rs — you will keep importing the old binary and wonder why your change did nothing. To actually rebuild, use maturin develop, which compiles in place:

uv run maturin develop --uv            # debug build, fast to compile
uv run maturin develop --uv --release  # optimised; use this for benchmarking

Or force uv to rebuild from scratch:

uv sync --reinstall-package polars-seq --no-cache

Pure-Python changes under python/polars_seq/ need no rebuild at all — the install is editable.

4. Regenerating the codon tables

src/codon_tables.rs is generated from BioPython and committed. You only need to regenerate it if you bump BioPython or change the alphabet:

uv run python codegen/generate_tables.py   # verifies 27 tables x 4913 codons, then writes
uv run maturin develop --uv                # rebuild so the new tables are compiled in

5. Building a wheel to install elsewhere

uv build                       # -> dist/polars_seq-0.1.0-*.whl
uv pip install dist/*.whl      # on any machine with Python >= 3.10; no Rust needed

Troubleshooting

Both VIRTUAL_ENV and CONDA_PREFIX are set — maturin refuses to guess which environment you mean. If you have conda on your PATH (an active base env is enough), either conda deactivate first, or just unset it for the one command:

env -u CONDA_PREFIX uv run maturin develop --uv

cargo: command not found — ~/.cargo/bin isn't on your PATH. source "$HOME/.cargo/env".

Your Rust change had no effect — see §3. uv sync served you a cached wheel; use maturin develop.

Python version — requires ≥ 3.10; developed and tested on 3.14. The extension is built against the stable ABI (abi3), so one wheel works across versions.

---

Usage

.seq.translate()

pl.col("dna").seq.translate(
    table=1,           # NCBI id, or name/alias: "Standard", "SGC0", "Vertebrate Mitochondrial"
    stop_symbol="*",
    to_stop=False,     # stop at the first in-frame stop, excluding it
    cds=False,         # validate as a complete coding sequence
    gap="-",
    on_error="raise",  # or "null" -- see below
)

Every argument means what it means in BioPython.

df.with_columns(
    protein   = pl.col("dna").seq.translate(),
    orf       = pl.col("dna").seq.translate(to_stop=True),
    mito      = pl.col("dna").seq.translate(table=2),
    bacterial = pl.col("dna").seq.translate(table="Bacterial"),
)

cds=True validates the sequence as a complete CDS: it must start with a start codon (reported as M whatever it actually encodes), have a length divisible by three, end with a stop codon (dropped from the output), and contain no internal stop.

pl.col("dna").seq.translate(cds=True)   # "TTGAAATAA" -> "MK"  (TTG is a start codon)

Nulls pass through as nulls. A trailing partial codon is dropped, as in BioPython.

.seq.reverse_complement()

IUPAC-aware and case-preserving. Six-frame translation is then just:

df.select(
    **{f"fwd{i}": pl.col("dna").str.slice(i).seq.translate() for i in range(3)},
    **{f"rev{i}": pl.col("dna").seq.reverse_complement().str.slice(i).seq.translate()
       for i in range(3)},
)

polars_seq.codon_tables()

All 27 NCBI genetic codes as a DataFrame — ids, names, aliases, and which are dual-coding.

---

Ambiguity codes are handled properly

Ambiguous IUPAC nucleotides resolve the way BioPython resolves them, which is more subtle than "anything unclear becomes X":

codon	→	why
GGN	G	all four GGx codons are Gly, so there is no ambiguity to report
TAR	*	R=A/G, and both TAA and TAG are stops
TAN	X	expands to two stops and two Tyr — genuinely unresolvable
RAT	B	GAT=Asp, AAT=Asn → B is the IUPAC code for "Asp or Asn"
SAA	Z	CAA=Gln, GAA=Glu → Z = "Glu or Gln"

RAT → B is the one that catches people out. An implementation that emits X for every unresolvable codon looks correct until someone runs it on ambiguous data.

---

The X-codon quirk

While building this I ran into a genuinely surprising corner of Seq.translate(). It is worth knowing about whether or not you use this library.

CTX translates to L. XXX is an error.

Both contain X. Here is why they differ.

BioPython keeps two different sets of nucleotide letters, and they disagree with each other:

1. the expansion table, which says what each letter can stand for. It has 17 keys, and X is one of them — it expands to GATC, exactly like N.
2. the validity check, which decides whether a codon it failed to translate is at least made of legal characters. That set is _ambiguous_dna_letters | _ambiguous_rna_letters — 16 letters, and X is not among them.

Translation consults the expansion table first, and falls back to the validity check only when the expansion fails. And the expansion fails in exactly one situation: when it runs into a stop codon. So:

• CTX → expands to CTA/CTC/CTG/CTT → all four are Leucine, no stops → resolves to L. The validity check is never reached and the X costs nothing.
• XXX → expands to all 64 codons → amino acids and stops → the expansion gives up → now the validity check runs, sees the X, and rejects the codon: Codon 'XXX' is invalid.

The precise rule, which we verified exhaustively against BioPython (817 X-bearing codons × 27 tables, zero counterexamples):

An X-bearing codon is accepted if and only if none of the codons it expands to is a stop. When accepted, it means exactly what the N spelling means.

So X is a perfect synonym for N — right up to the moment the expansion touches a stop codon, where N degrades gracefully and X becomes a hard error:

expansion	N spelling	X spelling
one amino acid, no stops	CTN → L	CTX → L
several amino acids, no stops	AAN → X	AAX → X
amino acids and stops	TAN → X	TAX → error
everything	NNN → X	XXX → error

Note the second row: an accepted X codon can come out as X — there X is an amino-acid ambiguity code (Lys-or-Asn), not a nucleotide. What it can never be is a stop.

This is easy to get wrong in both directions: treat X as invalid everywhere and you break CTX → L; treat it as a plain synonym for N and you wrongly accept TAX and XXX. I got it wrong the first way, and only the differential fuzz caught it — on the sequence CTTCTX. Every hand-written test I had passed. polars-seq now reproduces the real behaviour and re-sweeps all 817 X-bearing codons × 27 tables against BioPython on each test run.

This is BioPython's actual, current behaviour — 1.78 and 1.87 agree — so it is a quirk to match, not a bug to route around. It falls out of the two letter-sets having drifted apart.

---

Differences from BioPython

Two, both deliberate, because a DataFrame is not a single sequence.

1. on_error="null". BioPython raises on a malformed sequence, and so do we, by default. But in a million-row frame, one bad sequence aborting the whole query is usually not what you want:

df.with_columns(protein=pl.col("dna").seq.translate(on_error="null"))
# invalid sequences become null; everything else still translates

The default, on_error="raise", reports the row index and the offending codon.

2. No per-row warnings. BioPython emits a BiopythonWarning for a trailing partial codon. Warning once per row from inside a parallel Rust kernel is not viable, so we are quiet about it. The behaviour is identical — the partial codon is dropped either way.

Dual-coding tables (27/28/31) do still warn, once, when the expression is built — and to_stop with those tables is still rejected, exactly as BioPython rejects it.

---

Correctness

The parity claim is enforced, not asserted. uv run pytest runs:

• an exhaustive codon sweep — all 4913 codons × all 27 NCBI tables = 132,651 comparisons against BioPython, including which codons it refuses;
• differential fuzz — thousands of random sequences over ten alphabets (unambiguous, IUPAC, RNA, gapped, lower-case, invalid-character, …) crossed with the full option space, asserting we produce the same protein and fail on exactly the same inputs;
• golden tests for every documented rule and trap;
• Polars integration — nulls, empty frames, chunked and sliced Series, lazy, streaming, group_by().agg().

The lookup tables are generated from BioPython (codegen/generate_tables.py) by calling the real _translate_str on every codon, rather than by re-implementing its resolver in Rust — which is exactly the sort of code that produces RAT → X bugs. BioPython is a build- and test-time dependency only; it is not needed at runtime.

---

Performance

A Rust kernel with one array lookup per codon, no per-row allocation, parallel across chunks.

uv run python tools/validate.py reproduces the numbers on your own machine and data, and writes a full row-by-row BioPython comparison to tmp/ so you can inspect the output rather than trust it.

---

Layout

codegen/generate_tables.py   BioPython -> Rust lookup tables (self-verifying)
src/translate.rs             the kernel: framing, stops, gaps, cds rules
src/codon_tables.rs          GENERATED -- do not edit
src/expressions.rs           Polars expression entry points
python/polars_seq/           the .seq namespace and argument validation
tests/                       golden, exhaustive, differential-fuzz, integration
tools/validate.py            writes validation + benchmark artefacts to tmp/

Citing — please cite BioPython

If you find this tool useful, cite BioPython. This library would not exist without it.

BioPython is not merely an inspiration here, it is the specification: the codon tables shipped in this package were generated by calling BioPython's own resolver on every codon, its semantics are what the test suite asserts against, and every subtlety polars-seq gets right — RAT → B, the dual-coding tables, the X-codon quirk — is right because BioPython worked it out first. All polars-seq adds is speed and a Polars namespace.

Cock, P.J.A., Antao, T., Chang, J.T., Chapman, B.A., Cox, C.J., Dalke, A., Friedberg, I., Hamelryck, T., Kauff, F., Wilczynski, B. and de Hoon, M.J.L. (2009) Biopython: freely available Python tools for computational molecular biology and bioinformatics. Bioinformatics 25(11), 1422–1423. https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btp163 · PMID: 19304878

@article{Cock2009Biopython,
  author  = {Cock, Peter J. A. and Antao, Tiago and Chang, Jeffrey T. and Chapman, Brad A.
             and Cox, Cymon J. and Dalke, Andrew and Friedberg, Iddo and Hamelryck, Thomas
             and Kauff, Frank and Wilczynski, Bartek and de Hoon, Michiel J. L.},
  title   = {Biopython: freely available {P}ython tools for computational molecular biology
             and bioinformatics},
  journal = {Bioinformatics},
  year    = {2009},
  volume  = {25},
  number  = {11},
  pages   = {1422--1423},
  doi     = {10.1093/bioinformatics/btp163},
  pmid    = {19304878}
}

Licence

MIT. BioPython is distributed under the Biopython License Agreement / BSD 3-Clause ; it is used here at build and test time only and is not redistributed as part of this package.